REFERENCES FOR THE IMPACT OF PESTICIDES ON HUMAN HEALTH

•  Agricultural Health Study Publications. National Cancer Institute. Accessed October 15, 2021.
  • Dicamba is an herbicide that has been used since the 1960s for post-emergent weed control in both agricultural and residential settings. It is among the most widely used herbicides in the U.S….Applicators who had the highest use of dicamba were 1.8 times as likely to be diagnosed with this cancer as those who did not use dicamba.
  • Farming-related stress can be an important health concern.
•  Alavanja MC, Ross MK, Bonner MR. Increased cancer burden among pesticide applicators and others due to pesticide exposure. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 2013;63(2):120-142.
  • Effects of pesticide exposure and toxicity on cancer risk
  • …health care providers should emphasize the importance of minimizing personal exposures to all pesticides to control cancer risk.
•  Argou-Cardozo I, Zeidán-Chuliá F. Clostridium bacteria and autism spectrum conditions: A systematic review and hypothetical contribution of environmental glyphosate levels. Medical Sciences. 2018;6(2):29.
  •  Pesticides and agrotoxics are also included among this long list of ASD-related environmental stressors.
  • Of note, ingestion of glyphosate (GLY), a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide, can reduce beneficial bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract microbiota without exerting any effects on the Clostridium population, which is highly resistant to this herbicide.
• Battaglin WA, Meyer MT, Kuivila KM, Dietze JE. Glyphosate and its degradation product AMPA occur frequently and widely in U.S. soils, surface water, groundwater, and precipitation. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 2014;50(2):275-290.
•  Benbrook CM. Impacts of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the U.S. — the first sixteen years. Environmental Sciences Europe. 2012;24(1).
  • Heavy reliance on a single herbicide – glyphosate (Roundup) — has placed weed populations under progressively intense, and indeed unprecedented, selection pressure 
  • GR weed phenotypes are forcing farmers to respond by increasing herbicide application rates, making multiple applications of herbicides, applying additional herbicide active ingredients, deep tillage to bury weed seeds, and manual weeding.
  • Glyphosate has been shown to impair soil microbial communities in ways that can increase plant vulnerability to pathogens [36–38], while also reducing availability of certain soil minerals and micronutrients.
• Berman YE, Doherty DA, Main KM, et al. The influence of prenatal exposure to phthalates on subsequent male growth and body composition in adolescence. Environ Res. Published online October 15, 2020:110313.
  • Effects of phthalate metabolite concentrations during pregnancy on childhood and adolescent growth and body composition
  • …generational incremental height increase of Gen2 children over their Gen1 parents…
  • …some associations of prenatal phthalate metabolite exposure with body fat deposition at 20 years of age…
• Boedeker, W., Watts, M., Clausing, P. et al. The global distribution of acute unintentional pesticide poisoning: estimations based on a systematic review. BMC Public Health 20, 1875 (2020
  • Robust evidence is presented that acute pesticide poisoning is an ongoing major global public health challenge. There is a need to recognize the high burden of non-fatal UAPP, particularly on farmers and farmworkers, and that the current focus solely on fatalities hampers international efforts in risk assessment and prevention of poisoning. 
• Chen M, Chang C-H, Tao L, Lu C. Residential exposure to pesticide during childhood and childhood cancers: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2015;136(4):719-729.
  • Results from this meta-analysis indicated that children exposed to indoor insecticides would have a higher risk of childhood hematopoietic cancers. 
• Chiu Y-H, Williams PL, Gillman MW, et al. Association between pesticide residue intake from consumption of fruits and vegetables and pregnancy outcomes among women undergoing infertility treatment with assisted reproductive technology. JAMA Internal Medicine. 2018;178(1):17.
  • Higher consumption of high-pesticide residue FVs was associated with lower probabilities of pregnancy and live birth following infertility treatment with ART.
  • These data suggest that dietary pesticide exposure within the range of typical human exposure may be associated with adverse reproductive consequences.
• Christensen J, Asklund C, Skakkebæk N et al. Association Between Organic Dietary Choice During Pregnancy and Hypospadias in Offspring: A Study of Mothers of 306 Boys Operated on for Hypospadias. Journal of Urology. 2013;189(3):1077-1082.
  • Hypospadias is a birth defect in boys in which the opening of the urethra is not located at the tip of the penis.
  • Frequent current consumption of high fat dairy products (milk, butter) while rarely or never choosing the organic alternative to these products during pregnancy was associated with increased odds of hypospadias
•  Cohn BA, Cirillo PM, Terry MB. DDT and breast cancer: Prospective study of induction time and susceptibility windows. JNCI. 2019;111(8):803-810.
  • DDT was associated with breast cancer through age 54 years. Risk depended on timing of first exposure and diagnosis age, suggesting susceptibility windows and an induction period beginning in early life. DDT appears to be an endocrine disruptor with responsive breast targets from in utero to menopause.
• Comments to EPA from Environmental Health Scientists and Healthcare Professionals in support of EPA’s 2016 Revised Human Health Risk Assessment and the 2015 proposed tolerance revocation for chlorpyrifos
• Curl, C. L., Spivak, M., Phinney, R., & Montrose, L. (2020). Synthetic pesticides and health in vulnerable populations: agricultural workers. Current environmental health reports, 7(1), 13–29.
  • Pesticide exposure among agricultural workers has been linked to certain cancers, DNA damage, oxidative stress, neurological disorders, and respiratory, metabolic, and thyroid effects.
  • This review describes literature suggesting that agricultural workers exposed to synthetic pesticides are at an increased risk of certain cancers and neurological disorders. 
• Dias et al  Down the River: Glyphosate Use in Agriculture and Birth Outcomes of Surrounding Populations. The Review of Economic Studies. Posted on January 30, 2023
  • We document a significant deterioration in birth outcomes for populations downstream from locations that are likely to have increased relatively more the use of glyphosate. 
  • The average increase in glyphosate use in the sample during the 2000-2010 period led to an increase of 5% of the average in the infant mortality rate.
• Duncan BB, Castilhos CD, Bracco PA, et al. Aryl-hydrocarbon receptor binding and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil).Environ Health. 2020;19(1):105.
• Endocrine disruptors. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/endocrine/index.cfm. Accessed April 11, 2022.
• Eskenazi, B  et al.  Association of Lifetime Exposure to Glyphosate and Aminomethylphosphonic Acid (AMPA) with Liver Inflammation and Metabolic Syndrome at Young Adulthood: Findings from the CHAMACOS Study Environmental Health Perspectives. Published:1 March 2023CID: 037001
  • We measured glyphosate and AMPA concentrations in urine samples collected during pregnancy and at child ages 5, 14, and 18 y from cases and controls.. We assessed liver transaminases and metabolic syndrome at 18 y of age.
  • Overall, a 2-fold increase in urinary AMPA during childhood was associated with a 14% and a 55% increased risk of elevated liver transaminases and metabolic syndrome, respectively. Living near agricultural glyphosate applications during early childhood (birth to 5 y of age) was also associated with metabolic syndrome at age 18 y
  • Childhood exposure to glyphosate and AMPA may increase risk of liver and cardiometabolic disorders in early adulthood, which could lead to more serious diseases later in life.
  • Eskenazi’s CHAMACOS study previously linked pesticides and other harmful exposures to neurodevelopmental disorders, lower IQ, preterm birth, respiratory problems and obesity, among other health problems.
• Fagan J, Bohlen L, Patton S, Klein K. Organic diet intervention significantly reduces urinary glyphosate levels in U.S. children and adults. Environmental Research. 2020;189:109898.
• Gama Et al. Chronic Effects of Dietary Pesticides on the Gut Microbiome and Neurodevelopment Front. Microbiol., 30 June 2022
  • In this work, we raise awareness to the danger the chronic exposure to high dietary levels of pesticides can pose to the public, especially considering their prolonged effects on the gut microbiome
  • New studies have provided ample evidence that pesticides can endanger consumer’s health through microbiome dysbiosis, for instance (Gerage et al., 2017; Mao et al., 2018; Liang et al., 2019; Tsiaoussis et al., 2019; Hu et al., 2021; Zhou and Zhao, 2021). Due to the extensive reciprocal association between the gut microbiome and major homeostatic body networks such as the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems, this has spurred public health concerns and, ideally, should stimulate new guidelines limiting human exposure to pesticides.
• Gaupp-Berghausen, M., Hofer, M., Rewald, B. et al. Glyphosate-based herbicides reduce the activity and reproduction of earthworms and lead to increased soil nutrient concentrations. Sci Rep 5, 12886 (2015).
  • Herbicide application led to increased soil concentrations of nitrate by 1592% and phosphate by 127%, pointing to potential risks for nutrient leaching into streams, lakes, or groundwater aquifers. These sizeable herbicide-induced impacts on agroecosystems are particularly worrisome because these herbicides have been globally used for decades.
• Giambò F, Leone GM, et al.  Genetic and Epigenetic Alterations Induced by Pesticide Exposure: Integrated Analysis of Gene Expression, microRNA Expression, and DNA Methylation Datasets. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Aug 17;18(16):8697.
  • A direct link has been well established between the environmental or occupational exposure to pesticides and the development of several chronic-degenerative diseases, including tumors, neurological disorders, and autoimmune diseases [5,6,7]. The pathogenetic mechanisms of pesticides rely on both genetic and epigenetic modifications, affecting key genes and enzymes involved in the molecular mechanisms that underlie the development of neoplastic or neurodegenerative diseases.
  • The results obtained demonstrated that pesticides can modulate the expression levels of different genes and induce different epigenetic alterations in the expression levels of miRNAs and in the modulation of DNA methylation status.
• Gillam C. Chlorpyrifos: Common pesticide tied to brain damage in children U.S. Right to Know. Published September 27, 2021.
• Glyphosate and Your Health Icahn School of Medicine at Mt Sinai. THE INSTITUTE FOR EXPOSOMIC RESEARCH  Website. Published June, 2022. Accessed February, 2023
  • Studies suggest a number of health risks associated with exposure to glyphosate. Children and fetuses are most vulnerable to pesticide exposures due to their developing organ systems and differences in the way they metabolize toxins. In addition, developmentally normal hand-to-mouth behavior, lack of dietary variety, close proximity to the ground where pesticides settle, and high respiratory rates result in higher exposures in children compared with adults.
  • Glyphosate can be inhaled or ingested when it is applied to lawns and gardens. After application, we come into contact with glyphosate through plants, soil, air, and food. Glyphosate used on lawns and in parks can be tracked into our homes on shoes or strollers that have had contact with glyphosate-treated surfaces. Residues of glyphosate are detected on some produce as well as in processed foods.
  • Choose GMO-free foods labeled USDA Organic or Non-GMO Project Verified. Some GMO crops are engineered to be resistant to high amounts of glyphosate.
• Gunier RB, Bradman A, Harley KG, Kogut K, Eskenazi B. Prenatal residential proximity to agricultural pesticide use and IQ in 7-year-old children. Environ Health Perspect. 2017;125(5):057002.
•  Guyton KZ, Loomis D, Grosse Y, et al. Carcinogenicity of tetrachlorvinphos, parathion, malathion, diazinon, and glyphosate. Lancet Oncol. 2015;16(5):490-491.
• Hall K. Prenatal pesticide exposure linked to infant motor function (environmental factor, July 2017). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
• The Heartland Study:The Heartland Study will pioneer new, critically-needed methods to identify the impacts of prenatal and early life herbicide exposures. It is the first-ever study to track heritable, epigenetic changes resulting from herbicide exposure in a human population.
  • The Heartland Health Research Alliance
    • Supporting research to determine whether widely-used weed-killing herbicides affect reproductive and children’s health.
    • Sharing data and scientifically sound findings to equip farmers, the food industry, and policy makers to adopt farming-system practices that promote the health of people and the planet.
• International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics Recommends “Full Global Phase Out” of Glyphosate  Hygeia Analytics Website.  Published August 6th 2019. Accessed March 2023. https://hygeia-analytics.com/2019/08/06/International-federation-of-gynecology-and-obstetrics-recommends-full-global-phase-out-of-glyphosate/
  • International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) has recommended that all glyphosate use be phased out due to “the recognised impact on the health and well-being of women and newborn children worldwide.”
• Kogevinas M. Probable carcinogenicity of glyphosate. BMJ. 2019;365:l1613. doi:10.1136/bmj.l1613.
•  Li Z, Jennings A. Worldwide regulations of standard values of pesticides for human health risk control: A Review. Interl Journ Environl Res and Pub Heal. 2017;14(7):826.
  • For the top 27 commonly regulated pesticides in soil, there are at least 300 RGVs (8% of the total) that are above all of the computed upper bounds for human health risk uncertainty.
  • For the top 29 most-commonly regulated pesticides in drinking water, at least 172 drinking water MCLs (5% of the total) exceed the computed upper bounds for human health risk uncertainty; while for the 14 most widely used pesticides, there are at least 310 computed implied dose limits (28.0% of the total) that are above the acceptable daily intake values.
•  Lombardi C, Thompson S, Ritz B, Cockburn M, Heck JE. Residential proximity to pesticide application as a risk factor for childhood central nervous system tumors. Environmental Research. 2021;197:111078.
•  Malek AM, Barchowsky A, Bowser R, Youk A, Talbott EO. Pesticide exposure as a risk factor for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Environmental Research. 2012;117:112-119.
•  Malekirad AA, Faghih M, Mirabdollahi M, Kiani M, Fathi A, Abdollahi M. Neurocognitive, mental health, and glucose disorders in farmers exposed to organophosphorus pesticides. Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. 2013;64(1):1-8.
•  Mansouri EH, Reggabi M. Association between type 2 diabetes and exposure to chlorinated persistent organic pollutants in Algeria: A case-control study. Chemosphere. 2020;264(Pt 2):128596.
•  Mengozzi A, Carli F, Guiducci L, et al. SGLT2 inhibitors and thiazide enhance excretion of DEHP toxic metabolites in subjects with type 2 diabetes: A randomized clinical trial. Environ Res. 2020;192:110316.
•  Mostafalou S, Abdollahi M. Pesticides and human chronic diseases: evidences, mechanisms, and perspectives. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2013;268(2):157–77.
•  Mount Sinai Medical Center. Top Ten toxic chemicals suspected to cause autism and learning disabilities. ScienceDaily. Published April 25, 2012.
•  Nam DJ, Kim Y, Yang EH, Lee HC, Ryoo J-H. Relationship between urinary phthalate metabolites and diabetes: Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) cycle 3 (2015-2017). Ann Occup Environ Med. 2020;32:e34.
• New insights on pesticide exposure and autism (Environmental Factor, September 2018). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
• Nicolopoulou-Stamati P, Maipas S, Kotampasi C, Stamatis P, Hens L. Chemical Pesticides and human health: The urgent need for a new concept in agriculture. Frontiers in Public Health. 2016;4. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2016.00148.
•  Oulhote Y, Bouchard MF. Urinary metabolites of organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides and behavioral problems in Canadian children. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2013;121(11-12):1378-1384.
• Park AS, Ritz B, Yu F, Cockburn M, Heck JE. Prenatal pesticide exposure and childhood leukemia – a California statewide case-control study. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 2020;226:113486.
• Puigbo et al. Does Glyphosate Affect the Human Microbiota? Life 2022, 12(5), 707;
  • Our results demonstrate that more than one-half of human microbiome are intrinsically sensitive to glyphosate.
•  Rahman A. Low-cost approach may lower adolescent pesticide exposure (environmental factor, July 2020). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Published July 2020.
• Rauh VA, Perera FP, Horton MK, et al. Brain anomalies in children exposed prenatally to a common organophosphate pesticide. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2012;109(20):7871-7876.
• Rueda-Ruzafa L, Cruz F, Roman P, Cardona D. Gut microbiota and neurological effects of glyphosate. Neurotoxicology. 2019;75:1-8.
  • Researchers have suggested that Gly can cause dysbiosis, a phenomenon which is characterised by an imbalance between beneficial and pathogenic microorganisms. The overgrowth of bacteria such as clostridia generates high levels of noxious metabolites in the brain, which can contribute to the development of neurological deviations.
• Schinasi L, Leon M. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma and occupational exposure to agricultural pesticide chemical groups and active ingredients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014;11(4):4449-4527.
• Schütte, G., Eckerstorfer, M., Rastelli, V. et al. Herbicide resistance and biodiversity: agronomic and environmental aspects of genetically modified herbicide-resistant plants. Environ Sci Eur 29, 5 (2017).
• The environment influences brain development, experts say (Environmental Factor, March 2020). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
• Toxic Substances Portal:Glyphosate -Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
• Tudi, M., Daniel Ruan, H., Wang, L., Lyu, J., Sadler, R., Connell, D., Chu, C., & Phung, D. T. (2021). Agriculture Development, Pesticide Application and Its Impact on the Environment. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(3), 1112.
  • About one-third of agricultural products are produced depending on the application of pesticides. Without the use of pesticides, there would be a 78% loss of fruit production, a 54% loss of vegetable production, and a 32% loss of cereal production. Therefore, pesticides play a critical role in reducing diseases and increasing crop yields worldwide. 
  •  They can also be toxic to other organisms, including birds, fish, beneficial insects, and non-target plants, as well as air, water, soil, and crops. Moreover, pesticide contamination moves away from the target plants, resulting in environmental pollution. Such chemical residues impact human health through environmental and food contamination.
• Van der Meer TP, Thio CHL, van Faassen M, et al. Endocrine disrupting chemicals during diet-induced weight loss – a post-hoc analysis of the LOWER study. Environ Res. Published online October 9, 2020:110262.
• Vidart d’Egurbide Bagazgoïtia N, Bailey HD, Orsi L, et al. Maternal residential pesticide use during pregnancy and risk of malignant childhood brain tumors: A pooled analysis of the escale and Estelle Studies (SFCE). International Journal of Cancer. 2017;142(3):489-497.
• Wahab S, Muzammil K, Nasir N, Khan MS, Ahmad MF, Khalid M, Ahmad W, Dawria A, Reddy LKV, Busayli AM. Advancement and New Trends in Analysis of Pesticide Residues in Food: A Comprehensive Review. Plants (Basel). 2022 Apr 19;11(9):1106.
  • Pesticide residues found in high concentrations in fresh agriculture pose a significant threat to food safety.
  • A combination of factors, including bioaccumulation, widespread usage, selective toxicity, and stability, make pesticides among the most toxic compounds polluting the environment.
  • They are especially harmful in vegetables and fruits because people are exposed to them.
• Yao J, Pan Y, Sheng N, et al. Novel perfluoroalkyl ether carboxylic acids (PFECAs) and sulfonic acids (PFESAs): occurrence and association with serum Bbochemical parameters in residents living near a fuorochemical plant in China. Environ Sci Technol. Published online October 13, 2020.
• Yuan X, Pan Z, Jin C, Ni Y, Fu Z, Jin Y. Gut microbiota: An underestimated and unintended recipient for pesticide-induced toxicity. Chemosphere. 2019;227:425-434
• Zhang et al. Exposure to glyphosate-based herbicides and risk for non-Hodgkin lymphoma: A meta-analysis and supporting evidence.Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research Volume 781, July–September 2019, Pages 186-206
  • Our current meta-analysis of human epidemiological studies suggests a compelling link between exposures to GBHs and increased risk for NHL.

OLDER STUDIES (2012 and below)

• Bolognesi C, Merlo F. Pesticides: human health effects. Encycl Environ Health. 2011;438–453.
• Bouchard MF, Bellinger DC, Wright RO, Weisskopf MG. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate pesticides. Pediatrics. 2010;125(6).
• Winchester PD, Huskins J, Ying J. Agrichemicals in surface water and birth defects in the United States. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98(4):664-669.
• Children’s health and the environment. Children’s Health and the Environment: WHO Training Package for the Health Sector World Health Organization. Published July 2008.
• Schreinemachers DM. Birth malformations and other adverse perinatal outcomes in four U.S. Wheat-producing states. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111(9):1259-1264.
• Mnif W, Hassine AIH. y et al. Effect of endocrine disruptor pesticides: a review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2011;8(6):2265–303.
• Guillette EA, Meza MM, Aquilar MG, Soto AD, Garcia IE. An anthropological approach to the evaluation of preschool children exposed to pesticides in Mexico. Environ Health Perspect. 1998;106(6):347-353.