References and Resources: Sustainable Seafood

Please note: These articles have been updated through January 2026.

  • Bianchi M, Hallström E, Parker R.W.R, et al. Assessing seafood nutritional diversity together with climate impacts informs more comprehensive dietary advice. Commun Earth Environ. 2022; 3, 188 (GREAT GRAPHICS/GRAPHS  in this paper).
    • The highest nutrient benefit at the lowest emissions is achieved by consuming wild-caught small pelagic and salmonid species, and farmed bivalves like mussels and oysters. Many but not all seafood species provide more nutrition at lower emissions than land animal proteins, especially red meat, but large differences exist, even within species groups and species, depending on production method. Which nutrients contribute to nutrient density differs between seafoods, as do the nutrient needs of population groups within and between countries or regions
    • In 2017, seafood accounted for 17 percent of the global intake of animal protein1. 
    • The global average performance of all seafood assessed, weighted by species production volume (the two lines in Fig. 1), has a higher nutrient density than beef, pork and chicken and lower GHG emissions than beef and pork.
    • Amongst the seafood groups defined, wild-caught salmonids (pink and sockeye salmon) and the small pelagic species (e.g. herrings, mackerels, and anchovies) and farmed bivalves have the lowest GHG emissions per nutrient density ratio
    • Crustaceans, both farmed (primarily tropical shrimp species), and wild-caught (various shrimp species, American lobster, etc) and cephalopods all result in higher than average emissions while providing lower than average nutritional scores.
    • Any future applications of the approach to specific populations should attempt to account for the dietary needs locally or of specific population sub-groups (defined by age, gender or socioeconomic parameters), as well as local availability of seafood products and their source.
  • Carballeira Braña CB, Cerbule K, et al. Towards environmental sustainability in marine finfish aquaculture. Frontiers. 2021.
    • This article covers the main factors of marine aquaculture and shares sustainable alternatives to waste reduction and exploitation of chemicals
    • “Intensive fish farming represents the highest environmental risk when compared to other aquaculture sectors due to the feeding needs and the chemicals used associated with the production process.”
  • Christenson et al. What Is Kelp and Why Is it Vital to People and the Planet?  World Resources Institute Website. 2023
    • From providing nursery habitats and foraging grounds for a wide range of marine organisms, to critically contributing to a sense of identity for Indigenous and coastal peoples that have used it for generations as medicine, food and material, kelp is of vital importance to the planet and to people.
    • Kelp abundance is declining globally by 1.8% annually. Its main threats include ocean warming, grazing, excess nutrients due to land run-off, also known as eutrophication, pollution, sedimentation, overharvesting and the introduction of invasive species and diseases.
  • Coleman J. Eating more fish: when switching to seafood helps — and when it doesn’t. Nature. 2022.
    • “The highest nutrient benefit at the lowest emissions is achieved by consuming wild-caught small pelagic and salmonid species, and farmed bivalves like mussels and oysters. Many but not all seafood species provide more nutrition at lower emissions than land animal proteins, especially red meat”
  • Coren MJ. How I got hooked on tinned fish. The Washington Post. Published May 6, 2025. Accessed October 8, 2025. 
    • Americans mainly eat three kinds of seafood. Salmon, tuna and shrimp account for more than half of the roughly 20 pounds of seafood consumed on average per American each year. “The others aren’t really close,” says Corbett Nash, of the Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Seafood Watch program, which issues sustainability recommendations for wild and farmed seafood.
    • But tuna, which are in steep decline, can accumulate toxins such as mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Overcrowded farms for shrimp and salmon have led to illicit antibiotics, overfishing for feed and, in the case of shrimp, the loss of vast areas of mangroves.
    • Yes, you can search for well-managed wild and farmed sources. Much of what reaches our plates, though, lands on Seafood Watch’s “red list” for practices such as illegal and unsustainable fishing and aquaculture, Nash says. The overreliance on three types of seafood is bad for all concerned.
  • Crona, B. I., Wassénius, E., Jonell, M., Koehn, J. Z., Short, R., Tigchelaar, M., Daw, T. M., Golden, C. D., Gephart, J. A., Allison, E. H., Bush, S. R., Cao, L., Cheung, W. W. L., DeClerck, F., Fanzo, J., Gelcich, S., Kishore, A., Halpern, B. S., Hicks, C. C., & Leape, J. P. (2023). Four ways blue foods can help achieve food system ambitions across nations. Nature, 616, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05737-x
    • The study identifies that aquatic foods like fish, shellfish, and seaweed are often rich in essential nutrients (e.g., vitamin B₁₂, DHA and EPA omega‑3 fatty acids), while typically generating lower greenhouse‑gas emissions and environmental impact compared to terrestrial meats.
    • The study proposes a framework to guide country-specific policies that balance nutrition, health, sustainability, and climate resilience.The researchers introduce an analytical framework linking four policy aims: nutrient access, reduced non‑communicable diseases, lower environmental footprint, and climate resilience.. They assess where each objective is most relevant and explore trade‑offs (e.g., boosting export revenue might undermine local nutrition or equity).
  • Dauda AB, et al. “Waste Production in Aquaculture.” 2019.
    • Waste from aquaculture systems is classified as 1) solid wastes from uneaten feed and fecal droppings or as 2) dissolved waste products for food metabolism in fish or decomposed uneaten feed. Both solid wastes and dissolved wasted have harmful effects: solid wastes can cause stress, disease, and death; dissolved wastes produce nitrogen and phosphorus which are environmentally impactful water pollutants.
  • Davis, C. (2024, April 11). Seafood consumption per capita drifts higher in the United States. Usda.gov. https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/charts-of-note/chart-detail?chartId=108936
    • U.S. per‑capita seafood consumption increased by ~30% from 1990 to 2021, reaching an average of 20.5 pounds in 2021 (mostly fresh and frozen varieties). Imports account for ~80% of the total.
    • Canned seafood’s share dropped significantly, declining from 35% of total seafood consumption in 1990 to just 18% in 2021, while cured seafood remained flat.
  • de Roos B, Sneddon AA, Sprague M, Horgan GW, Brouwer IA. The potential impact of compositional changes in farmed fish on its health-giving properties: is it time to reconsider current dietary recommendations? Public Health Nutr. 2017 Aug;20(11):2042-2049.
    • The actual content of EPA and DHA in farmed salmon has nearly halved as the traditional finite marine ingredients fish meal and fish oil in salmon diets have been replaced with sustainable alternatives of terrestrial origin.
    • Significant changes in the EPA and DHA, vitamin D and Se content of farmed fish means that average intakes of these nutrients in Western populations are probably lower than before. This may have consequences for the health-giving properties of fish as well as future dietary recommendations for fish intake.
  • Eating healthy, sustainably and together in Wageningen. Wageningen Eet Duurzaam. https://wageningenduurzaam.nl/wageningeneetduurzaam/wageningen-eats-sustainably/. Published August 31, 2022. Accessed May 7, 2024.
    • Wageningen is a social and green city, where food represents health, sustainability and inclusion. From this image we developed a point on the horizon: (see formulation on the left side of this page) To reach this point on the horizon we will pursue four goals: • In Wageningen, the food environment is healthy and  inclusive; • In Wageningen, residents eat local, sustainable food; • In Wageningen, food waste by residents, corporations and organisations is minimised; • In Wageningen, residents eat relatively much plant-based food. These goals are not isolated. They strengthen each other and contribute integrally to reaching our point on the horizon. For that reason we do not assign any priority to individual goals. 
  • FAO. (2022). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2022. FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc0461en
    • Global fisheries and aquaculture output reached ~214 million tonnes in 2020, fueled by a 6% increase in aquaculture to 122.6 million tonnes. Wild-capture production declined by about 4.5%.
    • Overfishing remains widespread, as less than 65% of marine fish stocks are harvested at biologically sustainable levels, down from 90% in the 1970s. The report calls for a “blue transformation” centering on sustainable management, stronger regulation of illegal fishing, and ecosystem-friendly practices.
  • FoodPrint is a non-profit organization dedicated to research on education on food production practices. Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) Certification ensure the safety of your seafood.
    •  Sustainable Seafood
    • “Our aim is to pull back the curtain on the impacts of industrial food production practices and explain the benefits of more sustainable approaches to food production and consumption. We also want to help people raise their collective voices and take action to make real change in the food system.”
  • Gephart JA, Henriksson PJ, Parker RW, et al. Environmental performance of blue foods. Nature. 2021; 597(7876):360-365.
    • “Furthermore, blue foods provide the highest nutrient richness across multiple micronutrients (for example, iron and zinc), vitamins (for example, B12), and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (for example, EPA and DHA) relative to terrestrial animal-source foods10, which may provide greater incentive to shift demand as consumers generally prioritize seafood freshness, food safety, health and taste over sustainability.”
  • How I got hooked on tinned fish as sustainable and delicious seafood – The Washington Post. Accessed June 13, 2025. https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2025/05/06/tinned-fish-mackerel-sustainable/
    • Americans mainly eat three kinds of seafood. Salmon, tuna and shrimp account for more than half of the roughly 20 pounds of seafood consumed on average per American each year. “The others aren’t really close,” says Corbett Nash, of the Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Seafood Watch program, which issues sustainability recommendations for wild and farmed seafood.
    • But tuna, which are in steep decline, can accumulate toxins such as mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Overcrowded farms for shrimp and salmon have led to illicit antibiotics, overfishing for feed and, in the case of shrimp, the loss of vast areas of mangroves.
    • Yes, you can search for well-managed wild and farmed sources. Much of what reaches our plates, though, lands on Seafood Watch’s “red list” for practices such as illegal and unsustainable fishing and aquaculture, Nash says. The overreliance on three types of seafood is bad for all concerned.
  • Jakobsen J, Smith C, Bysted A, Cashman KD. Vitamin D in Wild and Farmed Atlantic Salmon (Salmo Salar)-What Do We Know? Nutrients. 2019 Apr 29;11(5):982. doi: 10.3390/nu11050982. PMID: 31036792; PMCID: PMC6566758.
    • Content of vitamin D in the fillet from wild salmon caught in the Baltic Sea and the North Sea was significantly different (p < 0.05), being 18.5 ± 4.6 µg/100 g and 9.4 ± 1.9 µg/100 g, respectively. In the farmed salmon the content ranged from 2.9 ± 0.7 µg vitamin D/100 g to 9.5 ± 0.7 µg vitamin D /100 g.
  • Kamalesha R, Vijayasri K, & Thiruvengadam S. Seaweeds, an aquatic plant-based protein for sustainable nutrition – A review. Future Foods. 2022;5:100142.

    • Seaweeds offer a sustainable, low-cost, and nutrient-dense alternative to traditional animal-based proteins, providing essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds beneficial for human health

    • Utilizing seaweeds as a protein source can contribute to reducing environmental pollution, promoting sustainable aquaculture practices, and supporting local economies through the development of seaweed-based food products.

  • Kennedy, G., Ahern, M. B., Iannotti, L. L., Vie, S., Sherburne, L., & Thilsted, S. H. (2023). Considering the food environment can help to promote the consumption of aquatic foods for healthy diets. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 7, 1241548.
    • “The food environment influences consumer decisions on which foods to acquire. To date there has been relatively little focus on creating an enabling food environment that supports consumers in decisions to obtain aquatic foods. To fill this gap, we conducted a narrative review of literature from 2000–2020 to document the availability, affordability, convenience, promotion, quality and sustainability of aquatic foods within diverse food environments. Our review highlighted several opportunities that can support development and promotion of convenient, high quality aquatic foods. We also noted several research gaps. For example, some consumers, especially those in high income countries, respond well to labels related to sustainability and also to messaging to consume diverse types of fish, especially lower tropic species like anchovy. However, less is documented on how promotion influences consumers from LMIC. The paper also notes a gap in assessment of the price and affordability of aquatic foods. Most price and affordability assessments do not provide details on which aquatic foods were considered in the costing assessment. In addition, wild or home-harvested aquatic foods are often not accounted for in price and affordability assessments. Using case studies, we demonstrate how considering the food environment in research and implementation strategies can add value to program design. For example, processing tuna frames and underutilized small fish species into powder is one innovation that reduces food waste and also creates a convenient, quality product. These results provide the foundation for deepening our understanding of how key elements of the food environment influence consumers’ decision-making and how these elements can be considered in future research, programming and policy efforts.”
  • Landrigan PJ, Stegeman JJ, Fleming LE, et al. Human health and ocean pollution. Annals of Global Health. 2020; 86(1):151.
    •  Addresses the negative impacts of land-based pollutants such as toxic metals, pesticides, fertilizers, pharmaceutical chemicals, agricultural runoff, and sewage on marine ecosystems and human health.
  • Lopez-Santamarina A, Miranda JM, Mondragon A del C, Lamas A, Cardelle-Cobas A, Franco CM, & Cepeda A. Potential use of marine seaweeds as prebiotics: A review. Molecules. 2020;25(4):1004.
    • Seaweed polysaccharides show strong prebiotic potential by selectively promoting beneficial gut bacteria and influencing gut health pathways (gut-brain, gut-immune, gut-liver axes).
    • More human studies are needed to confirm their health effects and establish standardized methods for extraction and application.
  • Lozano Muñoz, I., Díaz, N. F. (2020) Minerals in edible seaweed: Health benefits and food safety issues. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 62(6), 1592-1607.
    • Seaweeds are consequently rich in macro-elements and trace elements, with a mineral content at least 10 times higher than terrestrial plants and reaching 20-50% of its dry weight. Therefore, seaweeds can make an important contribution to the daily intake of minerals and are a promising source of essential minerals for functional food, food supplements, and nutraceuticals.
  • Murai, U., Yamagishi, K., Kishida, R., & Iso, H. (2020). Impact of seaweed intake on health. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 75(6), 877-889.
    • We here reviewed studies of the association between seaweed intake and mortality from or incidence of cancer and cardiovascular diseases, and their risk factors such as blood pressure or serum lipids.
    • We also summarized the adverse effects of iodine and arsenic species in seaweeds. Although seaweeds have not been widely consumed in Western countries, dietary diversification and an increased proportion of immigrants from East Asia may increase seaweed consumption in those countries.
  • Rocha CP, Pacheco D, Cotas J, Marques JC, Pereira L, & Gonçalves AMM. Seaweeds as valuable sources of essential fatty acids for human nutrition. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021;18(9):4968.
    • Seaweeds are rich in essential fatty acids, particularly polyunsaturated and highly unsaturated fatty acids, which are beneficial for human health.
    • These seaweeds have favorable omega-6/omega-3 ratios, suggesting their potential as nutraceuticals to support balanced dietary intake of fatty acids.
  • Seafood Watch a sustainable food movement that seeks to uncover where your seafood comes from and what you need to know about seafood so you can make better choices in your business or everyday life.
  • Stanford Center for Ocean Solutions, WorldFish, FAO, Beijer Institute of Ecological Economics, CARE, & Environmental Defense Fund; (2024). Integrating blue foods into national climate strategies Enhancing nationally determined contributions and strengthening climate action. Fao.org; Stanford Center for Ocean Solutions.
    • Aquatic foods from fisheries and aquaculture typically have lower greenhouse-gas footprints than land-based meats. The report outlines five policy intervention areas (including sustainable fisheries, low-emission aquaculture, supply chains, diets, and coastal blue carbon habitats) to embed these foods into Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for both mitigation and adaptation.
    • Integrating blue-food strategies promotes food security and livelihoods (especially in coastal and small-scale fishing communities), delivers ecosystem and climate co-benefits, and is reinforced by four enabling measures: R&D, data systems, equitable finance and inclusive governance.
  • Sultana, F., Wahab, M. A., Nahiduzzaman, M., Moiuddin, M., Iqbal, M. Z., Shakil, A., Mamun, A. A., Khan, M. S. R., Wong, L., & Asaduzzaman, M. (2023). Seaweed farming for food and nutritional security, climate change mitigation and adaption, and women empowerment: A review. Aquaculture and Fisheries, 8(5), 463-480.
    • This review paper highlights the significance of seaweed farming in global food and nutritional security, mitigation and adaptation to global climate change, and women empowerment within a single frame. This review paper also outlined the major issues and challenges of seaweed farming for obtaining maximum benefits in these aspects.
  • Sumaila UR, Tai TC. Ending overfishing can mitigate impacts of climate change. Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries Working Paper Series. 2019; 5.
    • The article ”End Overfishing and Increase the Resilience of the Ocean to Climate Change” discusses the relationship between overfishing and climate change and how ending overfishing can increase fish resilience to climate change. Overfishing leads to the loss of biodiversity and endangers the livelihood and health of the remaining fish population, decreasing their ability to withstand stressors such as climate change. Overfishing implies “catching targeted species beyond sustainable levels.” This puts at risk not only the life of the marine ecosystem but our own food security, coastal livelihood, and economics
  • Toolkits – aquatic foods. (n.d.). Aquatic Foods. Reviewed October 1, 2023.
    • Evidence-based tools and resources to support chefs and foodservice operators, leaders in consumer packaged goods, and nutrition professionals in promoting and marketing bivalves and sea vegetables to people throughout the United States. 
  • Tlusty et al. Reframing the sustainable seafood narrative. Global Environmental Change Volume 59, November 2019, 101991
    •  Seafood makes critical contributions to food and nutrition security, particularly in low income countries, and is often a more sustainable and nutrient rich source of animal sourced-food than terrestrial meat production. 
    • Seafood…should be recognized as a highly diverse set of foods, with variable environmental impacts, edible yield rates and nutritional profiles.
  • WWF. (2019). Sustainable Seafood. World Wildlife Fund; World Wildlife Fund.
    • Over 3 billion people worldwide depend on seafood for protein, yet approximately 85% of marine fish stocks are fully exploited or overfished. This has led to widespread harm through bycatch and habitat damage from both wild-capture and poorly managed aquaculture.
  • Zanteson L. Should you be adding kelp to your diet? Environmental Nutrition. 2022;45(10):3.

    • Kelp is a low-calorie, high-fiber food abundant in essential nutrients like iodine, calcium, iron, magnesium, and B vitamins, supporting thyroid function, bone health, and overall metabolic processes.

    • While kelp may offer antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential weight management benefits, excessive iodine intake from large amounts can pose health risks, necessitating moderation.