References for “Better Meat” / Humane Animal Agriculture

The below is some of the research out there that connects humanely and regenerative raised animals (animals raised in a regenerative system) and a higher nutritional content of their meat and products.  This includes vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, fatty acids, as well as lower levels of heavy metals, pesticides and antibiotics in these animal-based proteins.  Check out this current research project that will be comparing regeneratively raised and conventionally raised animal products here with the Nutrient Density Alliance and Edacious. 

Please note: These articles have been updated through January 2026

  • Banerjee, S.,et al. M.G.A. Soil microbiomes and one health. Nat Rev Microbiol (2022)
    • Health of animals is linked to the health of humans
    • Healthy soil benefits the gut microbiome of animals
    • Link between soil health and animal-derived food quality
  • Benbrook CM, Davis DR, Heins BJ, et al. Enhancing the fatty acid profile of milk through forage-based rations, with nutrition modeling of diet outcomes. Food Sci Nutr. 2018;6(3):681-700.
    •  In a U. S.‐wide study of 1,163 milk samples collected over 3 years, we quantified the fatty acid profile in milk from cows fed a nearly 100% forage‐based diet (grassmilk) and compared it to profiles from a similar nationwide study of milk from cows under conventional and organic management. We also explored how much the observed differences might help reverse the large changes in fatty acid intakes that have occurred in the United States over the last century.
    • we find that grassmilk is markedly different than both organic and conventional milk. The omega‐6/omega‐3 ratios were, respectively, 0.95, 2.28, and 5.77 in grassmilk, organic, and conventional milk; total omega‐3 levels were 0.049, 0.032, and 0.020 g/100 g milk; total conjugated linoleic acid levels were 0.043, 0.023, and 0.019 g/100 g milk; and eicosapentaenoic acid levels were 0.0036, 0.0033, and 0.0025 g/100 g milk. 
    • Because of often high per‐capita dairy consumption relative to most other sources of omega‐3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid, these differences in grassmilk can help restore a historical balance of fatty acids and potentially reduce the risk of cardiovascular and other metabolic diseases.
  • Benefits of heritage breed farming on nutrition and the environment. Sustainable Food Trust. Published October 9, 2021.
    • Nutritionally, heritage breeds often produce meat with higher intermuscular fat, resulting in better marbling and flavor without the need for antibiotics or high-energy feed. These breeds are typically grass-fed, which contributes to a better omega-3 to omega-6 ratio in the meat, benefiting cardiovascular health for consumers. Thus, the practices employed not only align with ecological sustainability but also enhance the nutritional quality of the meat, making it both environmentally responsible and health conscious

  • Bernués A, Ruiz R, Olaizola A, Villalba D, Casasús I. Sustainability of pasture-based livestock farming systems in the European Mediterranean context: Synergies and trade-offs. Livestock Science. 2011; 139(1-2):44-57. doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2011.03.018

    • They also considered what mitigation measures (to reduce livestock-associated emissions), and adaptation measures (to help livestock systems cope with climate change), could be achieved in each place.

    • Notably, five key locations instantly rose to the top of the pile: India, China, Brazil, Sudan, Pakistan. In all of these countries, the livestock sectors showed encouraging potential for both mitigation and adaptation to deliver large benefits. Collectively, livestock systems in these countries are responsible for over half of the total emissions from the 132 focus countries, and yet they are also home to 35% of the global rural population most vulnerable to climate hazards. 
    • What would some of those actions-and investment opportunities-look like in practice? A good example is silvopastoral systems where trees are planted on pasturelands, which both increases carbon storage on farmland and also shields livestock against the heat, increasing survival rates and improving farmers’ bottom lines. Another is for farmers to switch to local forage plants instead of relying on commercial feed. This not only reduces the climate impact of massive feed production worldwide, but the reliance on climate-resilient food breeds could also insulate farmers against climate shocks. Rotational grazing preserves soil carbon and fertility, which also generates more forage for grazing animals.”
  • Czarnowska-Kujawska M, Draszanowska A, Gujska E, Klepacka J, Kasińska M. Folate Content and Yolk Color of Hen Eggs from Different Farming Systems. Molecules. 2021 Feb 16;26(4):1034.
    • Higher levels of Folate and B12 & choline in pastured eggs
  • Daley, C. A., Abbott, A., Doyle, P. S., Nader, G. A., & Larson, S. (2010). A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef. Nutrition Journal, 9(1), 10.

    • Research shows that most consumers favor meat and dairy from grass-fed animals due to their higher levels of beneficial nutrients, such as omega-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid, which are linked to various health benefits. This nutrient profile makes grass-fed options particularly appealing to health-conscious consumers

  • Davis H, Magistrali A, Butler G, and Stergiadis S. Nutritional benefits from fatty acids in organic and grass-fed beef. Foods, 2022;11(5):646.
    • If an animal was raised on pasture eating grass in a rotational grazing system (perhaps even integrated with agroforestry), then the greenhouse gas impact could be much lower and the percentage of healthy unsaturated fat could be much higher than the saturated fat which can have benefits to cardiovascular health.
  • Declining nutritional value of factory farmed chicken. Compassion in World Farming Website. Accessed July 2024
    • Selection for fast growth and increased muscle mass in broilers has played a key role in the increased incidence of myopathies (muscle tissue disorders) in broilers, including conditions known as wooden breast and white striping, which  can contain up to 224% more fat and 9% less protein than normal breast meat
    • Chicken produced in higher welfare systems report higher nutritional values
  • Drewnowski A, Hooker K. The protein transition: what determines the animal-to-plant (A:P) protein ratios in global diets. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2025;12. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2025.1518793
    • Efforts by some high-income countries (HIC) to promote diets with less animal protein have been referred to as a “healthy protein transition” (8). Built around consumer education, technological advances, and policy measures (2), such efforts aim to replace meat and dairy with more plant-based options. The “healthy protein transition” has been vigorously promoted by researchers (2), foundations (9, 10) and by national and local government (11–13), aiming to stem climate change and also improve HIC diet quality and population health.
    • Mean protein consumption in the highest-income countries, including the United States, is greatly above the recommended value of 50 g/person/day (14–16). The mean dietary A:P protein ratio is around 65:35, with two thirds of the protein coming from meat, eggs and dairy. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) are poised to reduce total protein, reduce amounts of meat, poultry and eggs, and increase the amounts of beans, peas and lentils in the USDA Healthy US Style Dietary Pattern (17, 18). While the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee report strongly favored plant-based diets (18), no specific targets for reducing dietary A:P protein ratios have yet been established.
    • The EU protein strategy for human nutrition is built around plant-based proteins (11). Focusing on the need to reduce the A:P protein ratio in the French diet, the French National Institute for Agronomic Research and the Environment (INRAE) has suggested an A:P protein ratio of 50:50. At this time, the typical French diet derives up to 68% of protein from animal source foods (19). The Health Council of the Netherlands has proposed an even lower A:P ratio of 40:60 for consideration by the Dutch government (8, 20). In the current Dutch diet, the ratio is reversed (8). The Flemish Green Deal Protein Shift aims to shift the A:P protein ratio to 40:60 by year 2030 (21). Efforts to promote plant-based eating are also under way in Germany, Belgium, Sweden, and the United Kingdom (22–24). These efforts are driven by concerns about nutrition and health, the impact of agri-systems on the environment, and concerns with animal welfare (25–27). Plant-based diets are reputed to be associated with improved nutrition, greater affordability, and lower environmental footprint (28).
    • Twenty-five city governments globally have supported the 2021 Plant-Based Treaty in order to stem the impact of climate change
  • Eshel G, Shepon A, Makov T, Milo R. Land, irrigation water, greenhouse gas, and reactive nitrogen burdens of meat, eggs, and dairy production in the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2014;111(33):11996-12001. ***
    • Livestock-based food production is an important and pervasive way humans impact the environment. It causes about one-fifth of global greenhouse gas emissions, and is the key land user and source of water pollution by nutrient overabundance. It also competes with biodiversity, and promotes species extinctions. Empowering consumers to make choices that mitigate some of these impacts through devising and disseminating numerically sound information is thus a key socioenvironmental priority.
    • Livestock production impacts air and water quality, ocean health, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on regional to global scales and it is the largest use of land globally. Quantifying the environmental impacts of the various livestock categories, mostly arising from feed production, is thus a grand challenge of sustainability science.
    • Our calculations reveal that the environmental costs per consumed calorie of dairy, poultry, pork, and eggs are mutually comparable (to within a factor of 2), but strikingly lower than the impacts of beef. Beef production requires 28, 11, 5, and 6 times more land, irrigation water, GHG, and Nr, respectively, than the average of the other livestock categories.
    • Because of wide differences due to geography (35), year-to-year fluctuations (36), and agrotechnological practice (17, 37), numerous LCAs are required before robust national statistics emerge. Eventually, when a large and diverse LCA sample is at hand, the picture at the national level will emerge. Currently, however, the results from an LCA conducted in Iowa, for example, are unlikely to represent Vermont or Colorado.
  • Heins B. Grass-fed cows produce healthier milk.University of Minnesota Extension. Reviewed 2021.
    • An imbalance of too many omega-6 fatty acids and too few omega-3s can raise the risk of heart disease, obesity, and diabetes. Grass-fed milk offers a much healthier balance of these fats, with a 1:1 ratio of omega-6 to omega-3, compared to a 5.7:1 ratio found in conventional milk.
    • Grass-fed products tend to have a healthier balance of fats, an improved nutrient density profile, and the time cows spend on pasture can enhance soil health and support animal health
  • Krusinski L, Sergin S, Jambunathan V, Rowntree JE, Fenton JI. Attention to the details: How variations in U.S. grass-fed cattle-feed supplementation and finishing date influence human health. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 2022;6. doi:10.3389/fsufs.2022.851494 ***
    •  Compared to grain-fed beef, grass-fed beef contains a healthier fatty acid profile, including more omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid, and increased concentrations of phytochemicals desired by health-conscious customers
    • Feeding cattle diverse pastures composed of multiple plant species including grasses and legumes managed in a rotational grazing fashion results in higher omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and phytochemical levels in beef compared to feedlots and monocultures
    • Seasonal differences including changes in temperature, rainfall, grazing practices, and plant growth cycles affect the nutritional composition of feeds and ultimately meat. Additional feeds utilized in grass-fed beef production systems such as conserved forages may reduce or increase health-promoting nutrients in grass-fed beef, while supplements such as grape byproducts and flaxseed may improve its nutritional profile. 
    •  Further research should measure the effects of individual feedstuff and the finishing period on the nutritional profile on grass-fed beef.
  • Machmuller MB, Kramer MG, Cyle TK, Hill N, Hancock D, Thompson A. Emerging land use practices rapidly increase soil organic matter. Nat Commun. 2015;6:6995. doi:10.1038/ncomms7995
    • These practices combine traditional knowledge with current science
    • The potential SOM and CO2-sequestration benefits of investing in pasture-based land management are likely greatest in highly degraded soils in warm subtropical climates that facilitate long pasture-growing seasons.
    • Rotational grazing means land is allowed to rest between grazings  which leads to pasture growth
      • Allows vegetation roots to grow and create deep root structures
      • Allows for improved nutrient density of soil and carbon holding capacity
      • Allows natural interaction between plant roots, soil microbes, and grazing animals
      • Manure in small amounts = natural fertilizer and contributes microbes to soil
      • More agency for the farmer
  • Nogoy KMC, Sun B, Shin S, Lee Y, Zi Li X, Choi SH, Park S. Fatty Acid Composition of Grain- and Grass-Fed Beef and Their Nutritional Value and Health Implication.Food Science of Animal Resources. 2022;42(1):18-33.
    •  Beef from grass-fed contains lesser total fat than that from grain-fed in all breeds of cattle. 
    • The findings signify that grass-fed beef could exert protective effects against a number of diseases ranging from cancer to cardiovascular disease (CVD) as evidenced by the increased functional omega-3 PUFA and decreased undesirable SFA. 
    • Grain-fed beef contained higher total monounsaturated fatty acid that have beneficial roles in the amelioration of CVD risks than grass-fed beef
  • Nutritional benefits of pasture-based foods. FACT. Published June, 2021.
    • In addition, studies consistently show that pasture-raised animals produce nutritionally superior meat, milk and eggs. When compared to food from animals that were fed grain and raised in confinement, food from animals raised on pasture has better fat quality and increased levels of essential vitamins and nutrients. 
    • Their Bibliography – https://static1.squarespace.com/static/61e716dcf11ec140f67ed722/t/629621095ca07a4b60dac2b8/1654006026302/Bibliography+-+2021.pdf

  • Provenza FD, Kronberg SL, Gregorini P. Is Grassfed Meat and Dairy Better for Human and Environmental Health? Front Nutr. 2019;6:26. ***

    • Health is enhanced when animals graze phytochemically rich mixtures of grasses, forbs, shrubs, and trees. Diverse plant communities are nutrition centers and pharmacies that enable health prophylactically and therapeutically. They are thus etiologic in the health of herbivores, omnivores, and carnivores above and below ground. Animals foraging on phytochemically diverse pastures require less anthelmintics and antibiotics than animals foraging on monoculture pastures or in feedlots.
    • The phytochemical richness of herbivore diets enhances biochemical richness of meat and dairy, which is linked with human and environmental health. Among many roles they play in health, phytochemicals in herbivore diets protect meat and dairy from protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation that cause low-grade systemic inflammation implicated in heart disease and cancer in humans.
    • Overuse of antibiotics in feedlots adds to antibiotic resistance, a global health challenge
  • van Vliet S, Blair AD, Hite LM, Cloward J, Ward RE, Kruse C, van Wietmarchsen HA, can Eekeren N, Kronberg SL, and Provenza FD. Pasture-finishing of bison improves animal metabolic health and potential health-promoting compounds in meat. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology. 2023;14(49). doi.org/10.1186/s40104-023-00843-2
    • Thus, the goal of this study was to determine the impact of two common finishing systems in North American bison—pasture-finished or pen-finished on concentrates for 146 d—on metabolomic, lipidomic, and fatty acid profiles of striploins
    • Pasture-finishing (i.e., grass-fed) broadly improves bison metabolic health and accumulates additional potential health-promoting compounds in their meat compared to concentrate finishing in confinement (i.e., pen-finished).\
  • Van Vliet S, Provenza FD, and Kronberg SL. Health-promoting phytonutrients are higher in grass-fed meat and milk. Frontier Sustainable. 2021;4. doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.555426 ***
    • Grazing livestock on plant-species diverse pastures concentrates a wider variety and higher amounts of phytochemicals in meat and milk compared to grazing monoculture pastures, while phytochemicals are further reduced or absent in meat and milk of grain-fed animals.
    • Emerging data indicate that when livestock are eating a diverse array of plants on pasture, additional health-promoting phytonutrients—terpenoids, phenols, carotenoids, and anti-oxidants—become concentrated in their meat and milk. Several phytochemicals found in grass-fed meat and milk are in quantities comparable to those found in plant foods known to have anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, and cardioprotective effects.
  • Waite R, Zionts J, Cho C. Toward “better” meat? Aligning meat sourcing strategies with corporate climate and sustainability goals. World Resources Institute. Published April 16, 2024.
    • New analysis by World Resources Institute includes this handy mapping of different scenarios on company food-related carbon impacts.
    • To achieve a 25% carbon reduction while shifting to grass-fed beef and higher-welfare chicken and eggs, companies will need to procure 75% less beef and more plant-based foods.
    • As this is only looking at carbon and only at the company level we don’t see big shifts in chicken procurement in these scenarios, but halting the rise in chicken production and consumption is also imperative if we’re to reduce pressure on ecosystems and deliver climate, nature and nutrition goals.
  • Xia F, Zhao Y, Xing M, Sun Z, Huang Y, Feng J, Shen G. Discriminant Analysis of the Nutritional Components between Organic Eggs and Conventional Eggs: A 1H NMR-Based Metabolomics Study. Molecules. 2022 May 7;27(9):3008.
    • Overall, the study concluded that organic eggs have a more diverse range of nutritive components and higher nutritional value, especially beneficial for infant and child development, whereas conventional eggs may be better for promoting lipid metabolism and preventing fatty liver. 
    • Webinars
  1. Food Animal Concerns Trust “How Soil Health and Plant Diversity Influences Animal and Human Health” March 4th