The Essential Role of Nutrition in Preventing / Addressing Colds, Flus, Viruses, Respiratory Infections and COVID

Please note: These articles have been updated through January 2026.

Nutrition is foundational for a healthy body and immune system. Foods rich in micronutrients and protective plant chemicals called “phytonutrients” are key for keeping the body nourished and providing support for optimal physiological function.  This includes diverse and bright-colored, minimally processed  vegetables, fruits, herbs, spices, beans, nuts, seeds, whole grains and wild-caught fish. It can also be beneficial to know the Vitamin D levels which, if low can have significant implications for immune and lung health.  A vitamin D supplement ,may help to remedy this issue.  The below is not meant to be medical advice or recommendations and doesn’t preclude following public health guidelines like masking, staying 6 feet apart, washing hands frequently and consulting a physician if you are unwell.  Those are all essential to follow.  Speak with your trusted healthcare provider to discuss additional potentially beneficial options like those below to also  help support your health.

IN GENERAL, Americans are not meeting nutritional needs  and  not even meeting the EAR (Estimated Average Requirement)- the bare minimum for the below nutrients:

Vit A
Vit C
Vit D – 90% of Americans are deficient/getting insufficient amounts
Vit E
Vit K
Calcium
Zinc
Magnesium
Potassium
Choline

REFERENCES:

  1. Reider CA, Chung RY, Devarshi PP, Grant RW, Hazels Mitmesser S. Inadequacy of Immune Health Nutrients: Intakes in US Adults, the 2005-2016 NHANES. 2020 Jun 10;12(6):1735. doi: 10.3390/nu12061735. PMID: 32531972; PMCID: PMC7352522.
  2. Krebs-Smith SM1, Guenther PM, Subar AF, Americans Do Not Meet Federal Dietary Recommendations J Nutr. 2010 Oct; 140(10): 1832–1838.

 

BELOW IS RESEARCH SUPPORTING THE HEALTH BENEFITS OF BOTH OVERALL NUTRITIOUS EATING PATTERNS AS WELL AS THE BENEFITS
OF SPECIFIC NUTRIENTS.

 

GENERAL HEALTH NUTRITION STATUS/DIET

  • Calder PC, Carr AC, Gombart AF, Eggersdorfer M. Optimal Nutritional Status for a Well-Functioning Immune System Is an Important Factor to Protect against Viral Infections. 2020 Apr 23;12(4):1181. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32340216/
    • The role nutrition plays in supporting the immune system is well-established. A wealth of mechanistic and clinical data show that vitamins, including vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, E, and folate; trace elements, including zinc, iron, selenium, magnesium, and copper; and the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid play important and complementary roles in supporting the immune system. Inadequate intake and status of these nutrients are widespread, leading to a decrease in resistance to infections and as a consequence an increase in disease burden.
    • The following conclusions are made: (1) supplementation with the above micronutrients and omega-3 fatty acids is a safe, effective, and low-cost strategy to help support optimal immune function; (2) supplementation above the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), but within recommended upper safety limits, for specific nutrients such as vitamins C and D is warranted; and (3) public health officials are encouraged to include nutritional strategies in their recommendations to improve public health.
  • Detopoulou P, Demopoulos CA, Antonopoulou S. Micronutrients, Phytochemicals and Mediterranean Diet: A Potential Protective Role against COVID-19 through Modulation of PAF Actions and Metabolism. 2021 Jan
    • Although the relationship between PAF(platelet activating factor ) and COVID-19 is not robust, a healthy diet containing PAF inhibitors may target both inflammation and thrombosis and prevent the deleterious effects of COVID-19.
  • “Iddir M, Brito A, Dingeo G, Fernandez Del Campo SS, Samouda H, La Frano MR, Bohn T. Strengthening the Immune System and Reducing Inflammation and Oxidative Stress through Diet and Nutrition: Considerations during the COVID-19 Crisis. Nutrients. 2020 May 27;12(6):1562. 
    • CONCLUSION: We speculate that the manipulation of the microbial patterns through the use of probiotics and dietary fibers consumption may contribute to reduce inflammation and strengthen the immune system response in COVID-19 infection
  • Navarro J et al. Vegetarian and plant-based diets associated with lower incidence of COVID-19
    • Plant-based and vegetarian groups had a higher intake of vegetables, legumes and nuts, and lower intake of dairy and meat. After adjusting for important confounders, such as body mass index, physical activity and pre-existing medical conditions, the plant-based diet and vegetarian group had 39% lower odds of the incidence of COVID-19 infection, respectively, compared with the omnivorous group.
  • Pecora F, Persico F, Argentiero A, Neglia C, Esposito S. The Role of Micronutrients in Support of the Immune Response against Viral Infections. Nutrients. 2020;12(10):3198. Published 2020 Oct 20. doi:10.3390/nu12103198 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33092041/
    • Supplementation with vitamins, omega 3 fatty acids and zinc appears to be a safe and low-cost way to support optimal function of the immune system, with the potential to reduce the risk and consequences of infection, including viral respiratory infections. Supplementation should be in addition to a healthy diet and fall within recommended upper safety limits set by scientific expert bodies.

 

Fruit and vegetables

Flavonoids & Polyphenols (Beneficial Plant Chemicals) & Tea

  • Bland J. COVID-19, Poor Innate Immunity, and the Lack of Polyphenols in the American Diet.Medium. November 18, 2024.
    • Polyphenols, found abundantly in plant-based foods such as fruits, vegetables, tea, coffee, and whole grains, and gluten-free pseudograins
    • Their potential to support innate immunity lies in their ability to modulate inflammation, oxidative stress, and immune cell function.
    • Polyphenols regulate inflammatory pathways by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines and promoting anti-inflammatory mediators. This is particularly relevant to COVID-19, as polyphenols may help mitigate the cytokine storm associated with severe disease. Compounds like rutin, luteolin, hesperidin, and kaempferol (in Tartary buckwheat), curcumin (from turmeric) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) (from green tea) have demonstrated the ability to suppress inflammatory markers, reducing systemic inflammation and promoting immune balance.
    • By modulating the expression of genes involved in inflammation and antiviral defense, polyphenols may enhance the body’s innate ability to combat viral infections. For example, resveratrol, a polyphenol found in grapes and red wine, has been shown to upregulate genes that promote antiviral immunity.
    • The lack of polyphenols in the American diet contributes to chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and poor gut health — factors that collectively impair innate immunity. This dietary deficiency may partly explain the disproportionately high rates of severe COVID-19 cases in the U.S., particularly among populations with pre-existing health disparities.
  • Xu L, Ho C-T, Liu Y, Wu Z and Zhang X (2022) Potential Application of Tea Polyphenols to the Prevention of COVID-19 Infection: Based on the Gut-Lung Axis. Front. Nutr. 9:899842. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.899842
    • In this review, we discussed TPs reduced lung-related diseases through gut-lung axis by inhibiting dysbiosis. In addition, we also highlighted the preventive and therapeutic effects of TPs on COVID-19 complications, further demonstrating the importance of research on TPs for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 in humans. Based on this understanding, we recommend using TPs to regulate the gut microbiota to prevent or alleviate COVID-19 through the gut-lung axis
  • Montenegro-Landívar MF, Tapia-Quirós P, Vecino X, et al. Polyphenols and their potential role to fight viral diseases: An overview. Sci Total Environ. 2021;801:149719. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149719 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34438146/
    • Fruits, vegetables, spices, and herbs are a potential source of phenolic acids and polyphenols. These compounds are known as natural by-products or secondary metabolites of plants, which are present in the daily diet and provide important benefits to the human body such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, anti-allergic, antihypertensive and antiviral properties, among others.
    • Plentiful evidence has been provided on the great potential of polyphenols against different viruses that cause widespread health problems. 
    • The wide variety of action mechanisms of antiviral agents, such as polyphenols, against viral infections could be applied as a treatment or prevention strategy
  • Somerville VS, Braakhuis AJ, Hopkins WG. Effect of Flavonoids on Upper Respiratory Tract Infections and Immune Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Adv Nutr. 2016;7(3):488-497. Published 2016 May 16. doi:10.3945/an.115.010538
    • Importance of SYNERGY
      • Of the 3 studies that did provide the quantity of flavonoid, the intervention dose was greater than the average daily intake. It is therefore plausible that average daily intake of flavonoids is insufficient to reduce URTI incidence and that an increased intake is needed. Intake of flavonoids (∼1000 mg) can be achieved by diet through simple practices such as consuming green tea (250 mL), a glass of Shiraz (250 mL), blueberries (100 g), or some dark chocolate (100 g), which are all products high in flavonoid content.

 

VITAMIN D

  • Argano C, Mallaci Bocchio R, Natoli G, Scibetta S, Lo Monaco M, Corrao S. Protective Effect of Vitamin D Supplementation on COVID-19-Related Intensive Care Hospitalization and Mortality: Definitive Evidence from Meta-Analysis and Trial Sequential Analysis. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2023 Jan 16;16(1):130
    • Vitamin D plays a crucial role in immune function and inflammation. Recent data have suggested a protective role of vitamin D in COVID-19-related health outcomes. The purpose of this meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis (TSA) was to better explain the strength of the association between the protective role of vitamin D supplementation and the risk of mortality and admission to intensive care units (ICUs) in patients with COVID-19.
    • The results of the meta-analyses and respective TSAs suggest a definitive association between the protective role of vitamin D and ICU hospitalization.
  • Chiodini I, Gatti D, Soranna D, et al. Vitamin D Status and SARS-CoV-2 Infection and COVID-19 Clinical Outcomes. Front Public Health. 2021;9:736665. Published 2021 Dec 22. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.736665
    • If Vitamin D level is under 20, the death rate from COVID is close to 100%
  • Greiller CL, Martineau AR. Modulation of the immune response to respiratory viruses by vitamin D. Nutrients. 2015 May 29;7(6):4240-70. doi: 10.3390/nu7064240. PMID: 26035247; PMCID: PMC4488782
    • Vitamin D metabolites do not consistently influence replication or clearance of rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) or influenza A virus in human respiratory epithelial cell culture, although they do modulate expression and secretion of type 1 interferon, chemokines including CXCL8 and CXCL10 and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF and IL-6.
  • Bergman P. The link between vitamin D and COVID-19: distinguishing facts from fiction. J Intern Med. 2021 Jan;289(1):131-133. doi: 10.1111/joim.13158. Epub 2020 Aug 5. PMID: 32652766; PMCID: PMC7405052.
    • A general preventive effect of vitamin D supplementation against ARI was observed. The effect was greater in those with vitamin D deficiency (<25 nmol L−1) and if the supplement was given daily or weekly but not if given as large bolus doses.
  • Seal KH, Bertenthal D, Carey E, et al. Association of Vitamin D Status and COVID-19-Related Hospitalization and Mortality. J Gen Intern Med. 2022;37(4):853-861. doi:10.1007/s11606-021-07170-0
    • “Taking a Vitamin D Supplement to maintain this level can be protective for COVID” _ from the VA
    • WHEN LOW
      • increase susceptibility to infections and autoimmune

VITAMIN A

  • Abdelkader A, Wahba AA, El-Tonsy M, Zewail AA, Shams Eldin M. Recurrent respiratory infections and vitamin A levels: a link? It is cross-sectional. Medicine (Baltimore). 2022;101(33):e30108. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000030108
    • Vitamin A deficiency, which is more prevalent in malnourished children, was found to be associated not only with an increased incidence of RRTIs, but also with the severity of RTI symptoms in children. Nutritional assessment and correction, as well as vitamin A supplementation, may be effective in reducing RTI symptoms and RRTIs in children.
  • Tepasse PR, Vollenberg R, Fobker M, Kabar I, Schmidt H, Meier JA, Nowacki T, Hüsing-Kabar A. Vitamin A Plasma Levels in COVID-19 Patients: A Prospective Multicenter Study and Hypothesis. Nutrients. 2021 Jun 24;13(7):2173.
    • Vitamin A levels were significantly lower in hospitalized patients than in convalescent persons (p < 0.01). Of the hospitalized patients, those who were critically ill showed significantly lower vitamin A levels than those who were moderately ill (p < 0.05). Vitamin A plasma levels below 0.2 mg/L were significantly associated with the development of ARDS
  • Gammoh NZ, Rink L. Zinc in Infection and Inflammation. 2017 Jun 17;9(6):624. doi: 10.3390/nu9060624. PMID: 28629136; PMCID: PMC5490603.
    • Zinc plays an intricate function during an immune response and its homeostasis is critical for sustaining proper immune function.
    • This review will summarize the latest findings concerning the role of this micronutrient during the course of infections and inflammatory response and how the immune system modulates zinc depending on different stimuli.

VITAMIN C

  • Mondal DD, Chakraborty U, Bera M, Ghosh S, Kar D. An overview of nutritional profiling in foods: Bioanalytical techniques and useful protocols. Frontier Nutrition. 2023 Mar 21;10:1124409.
    • Studies have shown that patients with pneumonia and sepsis have low vitamin C status and increased oxidative stress. Giving vitamin C to patients with pneumonia can reduce the severity and duration of the disease. Severely ill patients with sepsis should be given intravenous gram doses of the vitamin to normalize plasma levels
    • . This is an intervention that several studies have found to reduce mortality. Vitamins have multiple physiological functions, many of which are relevant to COVID-19. These include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic, and immunomodulatory functions. Preliminary observational studies have shown low vitamin C status in critically ill patients with COVID-19.

VITAMIN K

  • Dofferhoff ASM, Piscaer I, Schurgers LJ, et al. Reduced Vitamin K Status as a Potentially Modifiable Risk Factor of Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(11):e4039-e4046. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa1258
    • dp-ucMGP was severely increased in COVID-19 patients, indicating extrahepatic vitamin K insufficiency, which was related to poor outcome; hepatic procoagulant factor II remained unaffected. These data suggest pneumonia-induced extrahepatic vitamin K depletion leading to accelerated elastic fiber damage and thrombosis in severe COVID-19 due to impaired activation of MGP and endothelial protein S, respectively.
  • Anastasi E, Ialongo C, Labriola R, Ferraguti G, Lucarelli M, Angeloni A. Vitamin K deficiency and covid-19. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2020;80(7):525-527. doi:10.1080/00365513.2020.1805122
    • In conclusion, we propose that vitamin K deficiency could support both cytokine storm Th2 by increasing proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, which is involved in the building up of the inflammatory response recruiting both cellular and humoral components. Besides, it can also contribute to those events involved in vascular calcification leading to thrombosis and disseminate intravascular coagulation (DIC), which feature the microvascular damage observed in COVID patients.
  • Janssen R, Visser MPJ, Dofferhoff ASM, Vermeer C, Janssens W, Walk J. Vitamin K metabolism as the potential missing link between lung damage and thromboembolism in Coronavirus disease 2019. Br J Nutr. 2020 Oct 7:1-8. doi: 10.1017/S0007114520003979.
    • In conclusion, the potential role of vitamin K supplementation to prevent the development and progression of severe Covid-19 remains largely unexplored. We would argue that the impact of the current crisis warrants thorough evaluation of the therapeutic potential of vitamin K in Covid-19 pathogenesis.

N ACETYL-CYSTEINE

  • Shi Z, Puyo CA. N-Acetylcysteine to Combat COVID-19: An Evidence Review.Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2020;16:1047-1055. Published 2020 Nov 2. doi:10.2147/TCRM.S273700
    • NAC administration in combination with other antiviral agents may dramatically reduce hospital admission rate, mechanical ventilation and mortality.
  • Izquierdo JL, Soriano JB, González Y, et al. Use of N-Acetylcysteine at high doses as an oral treatment for patients hospitalized with COVID-19. Sci Prog. 2022;105(1):368504221074574. doi:10.1177/00368504221074574
    • Our study found that NAC administered orally at a high dose was associated with better survival when added to standard treatment in patients with COVID 19 hospitalized with pneumonia.

QUERCETIN:

  • Colunga Biancatelli RML, Berrill M, Catravas JD, Marik PE. Quercetin and Vitamin C: An Experimental, Synergistic Therapy for the Prevention and Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 Related Disease (COVID-19). Front Immunol. 2020 Jun 19;11:1451. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01451. PMID: 32636851; PMCID: PMC7318306.
    • There is evidence that vitamin C and quercetin co-administration exerts a synergistic antiviral action due to overlapping antiviral and immunomodulatory properties and the capacity of ascorbate to recycle quercetin, increasing its efficacy. 
  • Di Pierro F, Iqtadar S, Khan A, et al. Potential Clinical Benefits of Quercetin in the Early Stage of COVID-19: Results of a Second, Pilot, Randomized, Controlled and Open-Label Clinical Trial. Int J Gen Med. 2021;14:2807-2816. Published 2021 Jun 24. doi:10.2147/IJGM.S318949 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34194240/
    • the use as adjuvant supplementation of a daily dose of 1500 mg/day (first week) and of 1000 mg/day (second week) of QP, significantly improves some of the clinical outcomes considered (virus clearance, symptoms frequency, LDH, ferritin) at the same time being very-well tolerated by users.
  • Saeedi-Boroujeni A, Mahmoudian-Sani MR. Anti-inflammatory potential of Quercetin in COVID-19 treatment.J Inflamm (Lond). 2021;18(1):3. Published 2021 Jan 28. doi:10.1186/s12950-021-00268-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33509217/
    • The effect of quercetin on the correct dysbiosis can help control systemic inflammation in the body. Finally, the quercetin, as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic and NLRP3 inflammasome inhibitor compound, can be a potential treatment for severe inflammation, which is the main life-threatening condition in patients with COVID-19.

FISH OIL/OMEGA 3’s

  • Borja-Magno AI, Furuzawa-Carballeda J, Guevara-Cruz M, et al. Supplementation with EPA and DHA omega-3 fatty acids improves peripheral immune cell mitochondrial dysfunction and inflammation in subjects with obesity. J Nutr Biochem. 2023;120:109415. doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2023.109415
    • Mitochondrial dysfunction and low-grade inflammation are present in PBMCs during obesity. 1 month supplementation with EPA and DHA improved mitochondrial dysfunction and modulated the proportion of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory lymphocyte and monocyte subsets in PBMCs from subjects with obesity.
  • Eggersdorfer M, Berger MM, Calder PC, et al. Perspective: Role of Micronutrients and Omega-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids for Immune Outcomes of Relevance to Infections in Older Adults-A Narrative Review and Call for Action. Adv Nutr. 2022;13(5):1415-1430. doi:10.1093/advances/nmac058
    • Fortified foods and nutritional complements are effective in achieving adequate micronutrient intakes and should be considered as a safe and cost-effective means for older people to improve their nutritional status and hence support their defense against infections. Complementing the diet with a combination of micronutrients, particularly those playing a key role in the immune system such as vitamins C, D, and E and selenium and zinc as well as DHA and EPA, is recommended for older people.
  • Hathaway D, Pandav K, Patel M, et al. Omega 3 Fatty Acids and COVID-19: A Comprehensive Review.Infect Chemother. 2020;52(4):478-495. doi:10.3947/ic.2020.52.4.478 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7779984/
    • It is necessary to understand that the link between omega-3 FA-rich diet and the clinical outcome could be far more complex than previously considered when treating COVID-19 patients. At the very least, this information could serve as the impetus that initiates further conversation and investigation into dietary supplementation that can be considered in both hospitalized patients and patients at home.
  • Harris, W.S., Tintle, N.L., Imamura, F. et al.Blood n-3 fatty acid levels and total and cause-specific mortality from 17 prospective studies. Nat Commun12, 2329 (2021).
    • Risk for death from all causes was significantly lower (by 15–18%, at least p<0.003) in the highest vs the lowest quintile for circulating long chain (20–22 carbon) omega-3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic, and docosahexaenoic acids). Similar relationships were seen for death from cardiovascular disease, cancer and other causes.
    • NIH recommends 270mgs/day
    • When adequate – death rate reduced by 13%
  • Langlois PL, D’Aragon F, Hardy G, Manzanares W. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in critically ill patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis.Nutrition. 2019;61:84‐92.
    • In critically ill patients with ARDS, ω-3 PUFAs in enteral immunomodulatory diets may be associated with an improvement in early and late PaO2-to-FiO2 ratio, and statistical trends exist for an improved ICU LOS and MV duration. Considering these results, administering ω-3 PUFAs appears a reasonable strategy in ARDS.
  • Pecora F, Persico F, Argentiero A, Neglia C, Esposito S. The Role of Micronutrients in Support of the Immune Response against Viral Infections.Nutrients. 2020;12(10):3198. Published 2020 Oct 20. doi:10.3390/nu12103198 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33092041/
    • Supplementation with vitamins, omega 3 fatty acids and zinc appears to be a safe and low-cost way to support optimal function of the immune system, with the potential to reduce the risk and consequences of infection, including viral respiratory infections. Supplementation should be in addition to a healthy diet and fall within recommended upper safety limits set by scientific expert bodies.
  • Souza PR, Marques RM, Gomez EA, et al. Enriched Marine Oil Supplements Increase Peripheral Blood Specialized Pro-Resolving Mediators Concentrations and Reprogram Host Immune Responses: A Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Study. Circ Res. 2020;126(1):75-90. doi:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.119.315506
    • Together, these findings demonstrate that supplementation with an enriched marine oil leads to an increase in peripheral blood SPM concentrations and reprograms peripheral blood cells, indicating a role for SPM in mediating the immune-directed actions of this supplement

SELENIUM

  • Khatiwada S, Subedi A. A Mechanistic Link Between Selenium and Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Curr Nutr Rep. 2021 Apr 9:1–12.
    • ” Selenium deficiency is related to oxidative stress and hyperinflammation seen in critical illness, and selenium deficiency is found to be associated with the severity of COVID-19 disease.”

PROBIOTICS

  • Xavier-Santos D, Padilha M, Fabiano GA, Vinderola G, Gomes Cruz A, Sivieri K, Costa Antunes AE. Evidences and perspectives of the use of probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and postbiotics as adjuvants for prevention and treatment of COVID-19: A bibliometric analysis and systematic review. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2022
    • CONCLUSION: The future perspectives point to the modulation of the intestinal microbiota by probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and postbiotics represent a promising adjuvant approach for improving the health of patients with COVID-19.

 

COVID AND MICROBIOME CONNECTION

  • Dhar D, Mohanty A. Gut microbiota and Covid-19- possible link and implications. Virus Res. 2020;285:198018. doi:10.1016/j.virusres.2020.198018 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32430279/
    • Gut microbiota diversity is decreased in old age and Covid-19 has been mainly fatal in elderly patients which again points to the role the gut microbiota may play in this disease. Improving gut microbiota profile by personalized nutrition and supplementation known to improve immunity can be one of the prophylactic ways by which the impact of this disease can be minimized in old people and immune-compromised patients.

 

COVID AND OBESITY (METABOLICALLY UNHEALTHY WEIGHT)

  • Mohammad S, Aziz R, Al Mahri S, et al. Obesity and COVID-19: what makes obese host so vulnerable?. Immun Ageing. 2021;18(1):1. Published 2021 Jan 4. doi:10.1186/s12979-020-00212-x
    • Excess adiposity is associated with significant changes in the resident immune cell composition of adipose tissue, which disrupts the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory immune cells in favor of the former. This leads to a state of chronic low-grade inflammation. This chronic inflammation is likely amplified by acute inflammation arising out of COVID-19 resulting in a more severe disease phenotype and poorer outcomes.
  • Sheridan PA, Paich HA, Handy J, et al. Obesity is associated with impaired immune response to influenza vaccination in humans. Int J Obes (Lond). 2012;36(8):1072-1077. doi:10.1038/ijo.2011.208
    • We report here, for the first time, that influenza vaccine antibody levels decline significantly and CD8+ T-cell responses are defective in obese compared with healthy weight individuals. These findings suggest a mechanism for the increased risk of severe disease from pH1N1 infection in the obese population. If antibody titers and influenza vaccination-induced memory CD8+ T-cell populations are not maintained over time by the obese individuals, they may be at risk for suboptimal vaccine response.
  • Dhurandhar NV, Bailey D, Thomas D. Interaction of obesity and infections. Obes Rev. 2015;16(12):1017-1029. doi:10.1111/obr.12320
  • Petrakis D, Margină D, Tsarouhas K, et al. Obesity ‑ a risk factor for increased COVID‑19 prevalence, severity and lethality (Review). Mol Med Rep. 2020;22(1):9-19. doi:10.3892/mmr.2020.11127
    • Slow, weak immune response
    • slower virus shed
    • longer recoveries
    • allows mutations
    • Lung function is compromised

COVID AND INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURE