References for the Impact of Pesticides on Human Health

It is critical that we understand the many potential harms that agrochemicals can have on health – to both farmers, farmworkers, and the surrounding communities, but also via the pesticide residues found on food.  Just one exposure to one serving of food with pesticides is not an issue, but in this day and age, that is an impossibility. It is more likely that we are getting exposed to many different pesticides in many meals throughout the week, and that this synergistic effect is also quite likely to be damaging or contributing to a host of health issues, especially for those most vulnerable like children, elderly and those with compromised health.  Do not let campaigns like #factsnotfear put out by “front groups” like Alliance for Food & Farming, or  American Council on Science and Health, or  The Center for Food Integrity who are funded by large agribusinesses, try to convince you that these chemicals aren’t harmful.  They are.  There is ample evidence below.

The Papers with *** are ones I have found particularly compelling.

Several specific pesticides/herbicides have garnered a lot of attention, namely glyphosate (found in Round Up) and  “Paraquat”, a weedkiller that has recently been banned in Vermont and in the process of being phased out in California.  Feel free to search for papers on those chemicals below.

Please note that this page has been updated as of August 2026

Agricultural Health Study Publications. National Cancer Institute. Accessed October 15, 2021.

  • Dicamba is an herbicide that has been used since the 1960s for post-emergent weed control in both agricultural and residential settings. It is among the most widely used herbicides in the U.S….Applicators who had the highest use of dicamba were 1.8 times as likely to be diagnosed with this cancer as those who did not use dicamba.
  • Farming-related stress can be an important health concern.

Alavanja MC, Ross MK, Bonner MR. Increased cancer burden among pesticide applicators and others due to pesticide exposure.CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 2013;63(2):120-142.

  • Effects of pesticide exposure and toxicity on cancer risk
  • …health care providers should emphasize the importance of minimizing personal exposures to all pesticides to control cancer risk.

Amanda, Maria, Goulart T, Araújo M, Paula. Effects of glyphosate exposure on intestinal microbiota, metabolism and microstructure: a systematic review.Food & Function. 2024;15(15):7757-7781. ***

  • This review aimed to observe the impacts of glyphosate and its formulations on the gut microbiota, as well as on the gut microstructure and animal metabolism.
  • Our findings revealed that glyphosate and its formulations are able to induce intestinal dysbiosis by altering bacterial metabolism, intestinal permeability, and mucus secretion, as well as causing damage to the microvilli and the intestinal lumen.
  • Additionally, immunological, enzymatic and genetic changes were also observed in the animal models.
  • At the metabolic level, damage was observed in lipid and energy metabolism, the circulatory system, cofactor and vitamin metabolism, and replication, repair, and translation processes. In this context, we pointed out that the studies revealed that these alterations, caused by glyphosate-based herbicides, can lead to intestinal and systemic diseases, such as Crohn’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease.

Argou-Cardozo I, Zeidán-Chuliá F. Clostridium bacteria and autism spectrum conditions: A systematic review and hypothetical contribution of environmental glyphosate levels. Medical Sciences. 2018;6(2):29. ***

  •  Pesticides and agrotoxics are also included among this long list of ASD-related environmental stressors.
  • Of note, ingestion of glyphosate (GLY), a broad-spectrum systemic herbicide, can reduce beneficial bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract microbiota without exerting any effects on the Clostridium population, which is highly resistant to this herbicide.

Bartholomew SK, Winslow W, Sharma R, Pathak KV, Tallino S, Judd JM, Leon H, Turk J, Pirrotte P, Velazquez R. Glyphosate exposure exacerbates neuroinflammation and Alzheimer’s disease-like pathology despite a 6-month recovery period in mice. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 2024 Dec 4;21(1):316.

  • We recently found that C57BL/6J mice dosed with glyphosate for 14 days showed glyphosate and its major metabolite aminomethylphosphonic acid present in brain tissue, with corresponding increases in pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-⍺ (TNF-⍺) in the brain and peripheral blood plasma.
  • Notably, we found increased pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines persisting in both 3xTg-AD and NonTg brain tissue and in 3xTg-AD peripheral blood plasma.
  • Our results are the first to demonstrate that despite an extended recovery period, exposure to glyphosate elicits long-lasting pathological consequences. As glyphosate use continues to rise, more research is needed to elucidate the impact of this herbicide and its metabolites on the human brain, and their potential to contribute to dysfunctions observed in neurodegenerative diseases.

Battaglin WA, Meyer MT, Kuivila KM, Dietze JE. Glyphosate and its degradation product AMPA occur frequently and widely in U.S. soils, surface water, groundwater, and precipitation. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 2014;50(2):275-290.

Benbrook CM. Impacts of genetically engineered crops on pesticide use in the U.S. — the first sixteen years.Environmental Sciences Europe. 2012;24(1).

  • Heavy reliance on a single herbicide – glyphosate (Roundup) — has placed weed populations under progressively intense, and indeed unprecedented, selection pressure 
  • GR weed phenotypes are forcing farmers to respond by increasing herbicide application rates, making multiple applications of herbicides, applying additional herbicide active ingredients, deep tillage to bury weed seeds, and manual weeding.
  • Glyphosate has been shown to impair soil microbial communities in ways that can increase plant vulnerability to pathogens [36–38], while also reducing availability of certain soil minerals and micronutrients.

Berman YE, Doherty DA, Main KM, et al. The influence of prenatal exposure to phthalates on subsequent male growth and body composition in adolescence. Environmental Research. 2020:110313. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2020.110313

  • Effects of phthalate metabolite concentrations during pregnancy on childhood and adolescent growth and body composition
  • …generational incremental height increase of Gen2 children over their Gen1 parents…
  • …some associations of prenatal phthalate metabolite exposure with body fat deposition at 20 years of age…

Berni I, Menouni A, Creta M, El Ghazi I, Duca RC, Godderis L, and El Jaafari S. Exposure of children to glyphosate in Morocco: Urinary levels and predictors of exposure. Environmental Research. 2023;217:114868.

Beyond Pesticides. Pesticides and You – Meeting Existential Challenges: Empowering Action for Change with Science. 2024;43-44(2-4) ***.

  • Included in this issue are scientific reviews of research reported by Beyond Pesticides in 2023, providing a critique of the independent peer reviewed literature with a shocking range of adverse effects, including cancer, neurotoxicity, brain effects, reproductive impacts, diabetes and obesity, chronic kidney and liver disease, Parkinson’s, respiratory illness and asthma, learning and behavioral abnormalities, and more, as well as disproportionate harm to people of color.
  • The abject failure of the law and regulations to respond to the scientific warnings on these pages has contributed to existential crises, including severe health threats, biodiversity collapse, and the climate emergency—and calls for holistic solutions, rather than piecemeal approaches focused on individual chemical restrictions. In this context, articles about organic land management and crop production practices that are ecosystem compatible inform the path forward. 
  • The organic solution in study after study and operationally in the marketplace charts a clearly viable and cost-effective path forward now. In light of these facts, the delay in the transition away from petrochemical pesticides and fertilizers is truly unconscionable. “Reduction” strategies that tinker with or tweak chemical- dependent land management practices are not defensible  any longer. The lack of preventive protection of people and families whose lives are disrupted or destroyed by the diseases and illnesses documented in science journals as being initiated or promoted by pesticide exposure—from production, transportation, use, storage, to disposal—is embedded in federal, state, and local policies. The data clearly finds that the compromises that statutes and regulations make with people’s lives and the sustainability of the ecosystems that support life serve corporations that benefit from the sale and use of these  toxic substances, not society at-large. 

Beyond Pesticides. Study shows value of soil microbiome, nurtured in organic farming, harmed by chemical-Intensive ag.Biology of Fertility of Soils. 2024.

  • The analysis compares the diversity and functionality of microbial communities between the two systems and how differences in soil properties contribute to changes in microbial abundance and diversity. Researchers also analyze a case study—based on cucumber cultivation with either organic or chemical fertilizers for three years between 2014 and 2016—for differences in soil properties resulting from different fertilizer management practices that contribute to changes in the soil biome.
  • Researchers found that organic soils have more bacteria and thereby support more heterogeneous communities of bacteria and protists. By providing more nutrients via organic soil amendments, organic agricultural systems allow faster and more abundant bacteria growth, which in turn feeds more protists than conventional farming. Moreover, protistan predators may prey on plant pathogens, thereby enhancing plant health. They also contribute significantly to nutrient cycling in the soil ecosystem and free up nutrients that can be used for plant growth.

Bianchini R, Pellegrino S, Cagnin S, et al. Multi-omics profiling reveals distinct regenerative agriculture impacts on soil health and crop productivity. Sci Total Environ. 2025.

  • Prenatal glyphosate reshapes gut, metabolism and behaviour across multiple mouse generations.
  • Harmful effects arise at 0.01mg/kg/day, a dose far beneath current safety limits.
  • Gut barrier damage, mucin loss and inflammation persist into the F2 generation.
    Glyphosate-linked microbiome shifts disrupt endocrine and tryptophan pathways.
  • Dose- and generation-based host-microbe rewiring suggests heritable gut-brain-immune disruption.

Boedeker W, Watts M, Clausing P, and Marquez E. The global distribution of acute unintentional pesticide poisoning: estimations based on a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2020; 20(1875). doi:10.1186/s12889-020-09939-0

  • Robust evidence is presented that acute pesticide poisoning is an ongoing major global public health challenge. There is a need to recognize the high burden of non-fatal UAPP, particularly on farmers and farmworkers, and that the current focus solely on fatalities hampers international efforts in risk assessment and prevention of poisoning. 

Bøhn T, Cuhra M, Traavik T, Sanden M, Fagan J, Primicerio R. Compositional differences in soybeans on the market: Glyphosate accumulates in Roundup Ready GM soybeans. Food Chemistry. 2014;153(15):207-215.  doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.12.054

Chen M, Chang C-H, Tao L, Lu C. Residential exposure to pesticide during childhood and childhood cancers: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2015;136(4):719-729.

  • Results from this meta-analysis indicated that children exposed to indoor insecticides would have a higher risk of childhood hematopoietic cancers. 

Chiu Y-H, Williams PL, Gillman MW, et al. Association between pesticide residue intake from consumption of fruits and vegetables and pregnancy outcomes among women undergoing infertility treatment with assisted reproductive technology.JAMA Internal Medicine. 2018;178(1):17.

  • Higher consumption of high-pesticide residue FVs was associated with lower probabilities of pregnancy and live birth following infertility treatment with ART.
  • These data suggest that dietary pesticide exposure within the range of typical human exposure may be associated with adverse reproductive consequences.

Christensen J, Asklund C, Skakkebæk N et al. Association Between Organic Dietary Choice During Pregnancy and Hypospadias in Offspring: A Study of Mothers of 306 Boys Operated on for Hypospadias.Journal of Urology. 2013;189(3):1077-1082.

  • Hypospadias is a birth defect in boys in which the opening of the urethra is not located at the tip of the penis.
  • Frequent current consumption of high fat dairy products (milk, butter) while rarely or never choosing the organic alternative to these products during pregnancy was associated with increased odds of hypospadias

Chung Hsiao, C et al  Association between glyphosate exposure and cognitive function, depression, and neurological diseases in a representative sample of US adults: NHANES 2013–2014 analysis. Environmental Research. 2023;116860

  • Studies have linked glyphosate exposure to various health risks, including cancer, birth defects, and reproductive problems (de Araujo et al., 2016). These findings led to the International Agency for Research on Cancer to classify glyphosate as a probable human carcinogen in 2015 (Davoren and Schiestl, 2018).
  • Our findings provide the first evidence that glyphosate exposure may be associated with neurological health outcomes in the US adult population. Additional investigation is necessary to understand the potential mechanisms and clinical significance of these correlations.

Cohn BA, Cirillo PM, Terry MB. DDT and breast cancer: Prospective study of induction time and susceptibility windows. JNCI. 2019;111(8):803-810.

  • DDT was associated with breast cancer through age 54 years. Risk depended on timing of first exposure and diagnosis age, suggesting susceptibility windows and an induction period beginning in early life. DDT appears to be an endocrine disruptor with responsive breast targets from in utero to menopause.

Comments to EPA from Environmental Health Scientists and Healthcare Professionals in support of EPA’s 2016 Revised Human Health Risk Assessment and the 2015 proposed tolerance revocation for chlorpyrifos. Natural Resources Defense Council; 2017.

Curl CL, Spivak M, Phinney R, and Montrose L. Synthetic pesticides and health in vulnerable populations: agricultural workers. Current Environmental Health Reports, 2020;7(1):13–29.

  • Pesticide exposure among agricultural workers has been linked to certain cancers, DNA damage, oxidative stress, neurological disorders, and respiratory, metabolic, and thyroid effects.
  • This review describes literature suggesting that agricultural workers exposed to synthetic pesticides are at an increased risk of certain cancers and neurological disorders. 

Desai S, Morimoto LM, Kang AY, Miller MD, Wiemels JL, Winestone LE, Metayer C. Pre- and Postnatal Exposures to Residential Pesticides and Survival of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia. Cancers. 2025

  • Our data showed that exposure to pesticides during pregnancy, particularly rodenticides, was linked to a higher risk of death after accounting for other prognostic factors. These findings highlight the need to examine preventable environmental factors that may affect childhood leukemia outcomes, with the goal of improving survival. 
  •  This study is the first to report reduced survival among children with ALL previously exposed to rodenticides, particularly during pregnancy, underscoring the need to further evaluate mechanisms by which environmental exposures during key developmental stages may later impact cancer outcomes.

Dias M, Rocha R, and Soares RR. Down the river: Glyphosate use in agriculture and birth outcomes of surrounding populations. The Review of Economic Studies. 2023;90(5):2674. doi:10.1093/restud/rdad056

  • We document a significant deterioration in birth outcomes for populations downstream from locations that are likely to have increased relatively more the use of glyphosate. 
  • The average increase in glyphosate use in the sample during the 2000-2010 period led to an increase of 5% of the average in the infant mortality rate.

Duncan BB, Castilhos CD, Bracco PA, et al. Aryl-hydrocarbon receptor binding and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil). Environmental Health. 2020;19(1):105.

Eaton JL, Cathey AL, Fernandez JA, et al. The association between urinary glyphosate and aminomethyl phosphonic acid with biomarkers of oxidative stress among pregnant women in the PROTECT birth cohort study.Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 2022;233:113300. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.113300

Ellis LB, Molina K, Robbins CR, et al. Adult organophosphate and carbamate insecticide exposure and sperm concentration: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence. Environmental Health Perspective. 2023;131(11):116001. doi:10.1289/EHP12678

  • The team reviewed decades of human evidence regarding the health impacts of exposure to two widely used insecticide classes, organophosphates and N-methyl carbamates, and found consistent associations with lower sperm concentration, which warrants concern, particularly in light of observed downward trends in semen quality demonstrated by other studies
  • “This review is the most comprehensive evidence sizing up more than 25 years of research on male fertility and reproductive health. The evidence available has reached a point that we must take regulatory action to reduce insecticide exposure,” says Dr. Perry, the senior author on the paper.
  • There is a strong association between insecticide exposure and lower sperm concentration in adult men globally.

Endocrine disruptors. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/endocrine/index.cfm. Accessed April 11, 2022.

Eskenazi, B  et al.  Association of lifetime exposure to glyphosate and aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) with liver inflammation and metabolic syndrome at young adulthood: Findings from the CHAMACOS study.Environmental Health Perspectives. 2023: 037001

  • We measured glyphosate and AMPA concentrations in urine samples collected during pregnancy and at child ages 5, 14, and 18 y from cases and controls.. We assessed liver transaminases and metabolic syndrome at 18 y of age.
  • Overall, a 2-fold increase in urinary AMPA during childhood was associated with a 14% and a 55% increased risk of elevated liver transaminases and metabolic syndrome, respectively. Living near agricultural glyphosate applications during early childhood (birth to 5 y of age) was also associated with metabolic syndrome at age 18 y
  • Childhood exposure to glyphosate and AMPA may increase risk of liver and cardiometabolic disorders in early adulthood, which could lead to more serious diseases later in life.
  • Eskenazi’s CHAMACOS study previously linked pesticides and other harmful exposures to neurodevelopmental disorders, lower IQ, preterm birth, respiratory problems and obesity, among other health problems.

Fagan J, Bohlen L, Patton S, Klein K. Organic diet intervention significantly reduces urinary glyphosate levels in U.S. children and adults. Environmental Research. 2020;189:109898.

Ferdinand P. Pesticide use around homes and farms linked to childhood leukemia, brain tumors. U.S. Right to Know. June 8, 2026.

  • Forty years of studies find higher cancer risks among children exposed during pregnancy and early life to pesticides used on farms, lawns, gardens, and pets
  • Using pesticides at home, having parents who work with pesticides (especially in farming), and living near farmland were the exposures most often linked to childhood leukemia and brain tumors
  • The cancer risks were highest with pesticide exposure during pregnancy or early childhood, when children’s bodies and brains are still developing and more sensitive to harmful chemicals.
  • Studies found that children with these pesticide exposures were nearly twice as likely to develop cancer, and in some cases more than three times as likely, depending on the type, timing, and amount of exposure.

Furlong, Melissa A et al.  Pre-Conception And First Trimester Exposure To Pesticides And Associations With Stillbirth.American Journal of Epidemiology. 2024;198. doi:10.1093/aje/kwae198

  • Pesticide exposures during pre-conception and first trimester may be associated with stillbirth.
  • Consumer friendly article about this:” Study finds association between pesticide exposure and stillbirth risk “
    • “These findings underscore the importance of considering individual pesticides rather than just the overall pesticide class, as specific chemical compounds may pose unique risks. It also highlights the potential for pre-pregnancy exposures to affect reproductive outcomes.”
    • Among organophosphates, acephate showed the strongest effect estimates on stillbirth, so that exposure to acephate in the first trimester was associated with a doubling of risk. Within the pyrethroid class, cyfluthrin exposure during the 90 days prior to conception almost doubled the risk of stillbirth.

Gama Et al. Chronic Effects of Dietary Pesticides on the Gut Microbiome and Neurodevelopment Front. Microbiol., 30 June 2022

  • In this work, we raise awareness to the danger the chronic exposure to high dietary levels of pesticides can pose to the public, especially considering their prolonged effects on the gut microbiome
  • New studies have provided ample evidence that pesticides can endanger consumer’s health through microbiome dysbiosis, for instance (Gerage et al., 2017; Mao et al., 2018; Liang et al., 2019; Tsiaoussis et al., 2019; Hu et al., 2021; Zhou and Zhao, 2021). Due to the extensive reciprocal association between the gut microbiome and major homeostatic body networks such as the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems, this has spurred public health concerns and, ideally, should stimulate new guidelines limiting human exposure to pesticides.

Gaupp-Berghausen, M., Hofer, M., Rewald, B. et al.Glyphosate-based herbicides reduce the activity and reproduction of earthworms and lead to increased soil nutrient concentrations. Sci Rep5, 12886 (2015).

  • Herbicide application led to increased soil concentrations of nitrate by 1592% and phosphate by 127%, pointing to potential risks for nutrient leaching into streams, lakes, or groundwater aquifers. These sizeable herbicide-induced impacts on agroecosystems are particularly worrisome because these herbicides have been globally used for decades.

Gerken J, Vincent GT, Zapata D, Barron IG, Zapata I. Comprehensive assessment of pesticide use patterns and increased cancer risk.Frontiers in Cancer Control and Society. 2024;2. doi:10.3389/fcacs.2024.1368086

  • Atrazine was consistently a top contributor in regions with high added risk for all cancers and colon cancers. Boscalid was a top contributor in not only high-added-risk regions for leukemia, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and pancreatic cancer but also for low-added-risk regions of lung cancer. Dimethomorph was representative of not only regions with a high added risk of leukemia and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma but also regions with a low added risk of colon cancer.
  • Dicamba was consistently at the top of the list in regions with a high added risk of colon cancer and pancreatic cancer. Dimethenamid was seen in regions with a low added risk of bladder cancer, but in combination with dimethenamid-P, it was observed in regions with a high added risk of pancreatic cancer. Dinotefuran was at the top in regions with high leukemia and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma on the opposite end for colon cancer.
  • Glyphosate was consistently seen at the top in regions with a high added risk of all cancers, colon cancer, and pancreatic cancer. Imazethapyr had a similar presence in all cancers, colon cancer, and lung cancer. Finally, metolachlor, metolachlor-S, and the combination of both were consistently top contributors for regions with higher added risk of all cancers, colon cancer, and pancreatic cancer

Gerona RR, Reiter JL, Zakharevich I, et al. Glyphosate exposure in early pregnancy and reduced fetal growth: A prospective observational study of high-risk pregnancies.Environmental Health. 2022;21(1):95. doi:10.1186/s12940-022-00906-3

Giambò F, Leone GM, et al.  Genetic and Epigenetic Alterations Induced by Pesticide Exposure: Integrated Analysis of Gene Expression, microRNA Expression, and DNA Methylation Datasets. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Aug 17;18(16):8697.

  • A direct link has been well established between the environmental or occupational exposure to pesticides and the development of several chronic-degenerative diseases, including tumors, neurological disorders, and autoimmune diseases [5,6,7]. The pathogenetic mechanisms of pesticides rely on both genetic and epigenetic modifications, affecting key genes and enzymes involved in the molecular mechanisms that underlie the development of neoplastic or neurodegenerative diseases.
  • The results obtained demonstrated that pesticides can modulate the expression levels of different genes and induce different epigenetic alterations in the expression levels of miRNAs and in the modulation of DNA methylation status.

Gillezeau C, van Gerwen M, Shaffer RM, Rana I, Zhang L, Sheppard L, Taioli E. The evidence of human exposure to glyphosate: a review. Environ Health. 2019 Jan 7;18(1):2. doi: 10.1186/s12940-018-0435-5. PMID: 30612564; PMCID: PMC6322310.

  • Eight studies reported urinary levels in 423 occupationally and para-occupationally exposed subjects
  • 14 studies reported glyphosate levels in various biofluids on 3298 subjects from the general population. Average urinary levels in occupationally exposed subjects varied from 0.26 to 73.5 μg/L; environmental exposure urinary levels ranged from 0.16 to 7.6 μg/L. Only two studies measured temporal trends in exposure, both of which show increasing proportions of individuals with detectable levels of glyphosate in their urine over time.

Gillam C. Chlorpyrifos: Common pesticide tied to brain damage in children U.S. Right to Know. Published September 27, 2021.

Glyphosate and Your Health. Icahn School of Medicine at Mt Sinai. THE INSTITUTE FOR EXPOSOMIC RESEARCH  Website. Published June, 2022. Accessed February, 2023

  • Studies suggest a number of health risks associated with exposure to glyphosate. Children and fetuses are most vulnerable to pesticide exposures due to their developing organ systems and differences in the way they metabolize toxins. In addition, developmentally normal hand-to-mouth behavior, lack of dietary variety, close proximity to the ground where pesticides settle, and high respiratory rates result in higher exposures in children compared with adults.
  • Glyphosate can be inhaled or ingested when it is applied to lawns and gardens. After application, we come into contact with glyphosate through plants, soil, air, and food. Glyphosate used on lawns and in parks can be tracked into our homes on shoes or strollers that have had contact with glyphosate-treated surfaces. Residues of glyphosate are detected on some produce as well as in processed foods.
  • Choose GMO-free foods labeled USDA Organic or Non-GMO Project Verified. Some GMO crops are engineered to be resistant to high amounts of glyphosate.

Glyphosate in Foods – Evidence Based Database. Foodatlas.ai. Published 2020.

Guyton KZ, Loomis D, Grosse Y, et al. Carcinogenicity of tetrachlorvinphos, parathion, malathion, diazinon, and glyphosate. Lancet Oncol. 2015;16(5):490-491.

Hall K. Prenatal pesticide exposure linked to infant motor function (environmental factor, July 2017). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

Hamerschlag K, Malkan S, Lappé A. Merchants of Poison: How Monsanto Sold the World on a Toxic Pesticide. Friends of the Earth; 2022.

The Heartland Study:The Heartland Study will pioneer new, critically-needed methods to identify the impacts of prenatal and early life herbicide exposures. It is the first-ever study to track heritable, epigenetic changes resulting from herbicide exposure in a human population.

The Heartland Health Research Alliance

  • Supporting research to determine whether widely-used weed-killing herbicides affect reproductive and children’s health.
  • Sharing data and scientifically sound findings to equip farmers, the food industry, and policy makers to adopt farming-system practices that promote the health of people and the planet.

Hyland C, Spivak M, Sheppard L, et al. Urinary Glyphosate Concentrations among Pregnant Participants in a Randomized, Crossover Trial of Organic and Conventional Diets. Environ Health Perspect. 2023;131(7):77005. doi:10.1289/EHP12155

  • In response to increasing evidence that prenatal glyphosate exposure may be
    associated with adverse birth outcomes such as shortened gestational age,9–11 recent editorials and consensus statements have called for more biomonitoring and epidemiological research on glyphosate, particularly during vulnerable periods such as pregnancy and early childhood.
  • This trial is the first to examine the effect of an organic diet intervention on glyphosate among people living near and far from agricultural fields.
  • Our results suggest that diet is an important contributor to glyphosate exposure in people living >0:5 km from agricultural fields; for peo- ple living near crops, agriculture may be a dominant exposure source during the pesticide spray season.

International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics Recommends “Full Global Phase Out” of Glyphosate  Hygeia Analytics Website.  Published August 6th 2019. Accessed March 2023. https://hygeia-analytics.com/2019/08/06/International-federation-of-gynecology-and-obstetrics-recommends-full-global-phase-out-of-glyphosate/

  •  International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) has recommended that all glyphosate use be phased out due to “the recognised impact on the health and well-being of women and newborn children worldwide.”

Kanissery, R., Gairhe, B., Kadyampakeni, D., et. al. (2019). Glyphosate: Its environmental persistence and impact on crop health and nutrition.Plants (Basel, Switzerland), 8 (11), 499.

  • The mechanism of action of glyphosate is to block the activity of the enzyme called 5-enol-pyruvyl-shikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), which catalyzes the sixth step in the shikimic acid pathway [3,4]. By blocking the enzyme, it prevents the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids, viz. phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, produced through the shikimate pathway [5]. Plants treated with glyphosate normally die within a period of 1–3 weeks, and because of its even distribution in the plant, no plant parts can survive [6].
  •  In many studies, glyphosate has been detected in soil, crop products, animals that feed on crop products, humans, freshwater, and the organisms that live there [14]. Despite favorable evaluations of weed control efficacy and environmental risks of glyphosate, an increasing number of more recent observations suggest a relationship between extensive glyphosate application and adverse nontarget effects in agroecosystems [15]. The more significant among these concerns are (1) persistence in the environment, (2) effects on crop health, and (3) interaction with crop nutrition (Figure 1).
  • After weeds eventually die, it ends up in the soil following the decay of plant parts. More intensive evaluations have revealed that glyphosate is translocated within plants, accumulated in roots, and eventually released into the rhizosphere [56,57,58]. From the soil, glyphosate may also be reabsorbed by the target or nontarget plants back through the roots after the initial application. 
  • Glyphosate can also predispose plants to diseases indirectly by reducing the overall growth and vigor of the plants, modifying soil microflora that affects the availability of nutrients required for disease resistance, and altering the physiological efficiency of plants.

Kladnicka I, Bludovska M, Plavinova I, Muller L, Mullerova D. Obesogens in Foods. Biomolecules. 2022 May 9;12(5):680. (Note that this paper also covers many other chemicals like flame retardants, bisphenol A and PFAS etc) ***

  • Evidence-based medical data have recently brought much more convincing data about associations of particular chemicals and the probability of the raised risk of developing obesity. Foods are the main source of obesogens. Some obesogens occur naturally in food, but most are environmental chemicals, entering food as a foreign substance, whether in the form of contaminants or additives, and they are used in a large amount in highly processed food.
  • Organotins (OTs) are chemicals widely used as pesticides, disinfectants, and biocides in paints. OTs are harmful to endocrine glands and can interfere with neuroendocrine control, hormone synthesis and/or the biological availability or activity of target receptors. They impair metabolism either centrally (lateral hypothalamus) or peripherally (adipose tissue) and result in obesity. Besides their obesogenic effects, OTs affect reproductive organs [58,59]. Due to their physical and chemical properties, OTs easily enter food chains and produce tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin, which are both severely toxic 
  • More than 100 various organophosphates have been described. OPPs pertain to the most commonly used pesticides worldwide and their use in agricultural premises has rapidly increased. The World Health Organization (WHO) has designated OPPs as being extremely hazardous (Chlorpyrifos, Diazinon

Knapke ET, Magalhaes DP, Dalvie MA, Mandrioli D, Perry MJ. Environmental and occupational pesticide exposure and human sperm parameters: A Navigation Guide review. Toxicology. 2022;465:153017. doi:10.1016/j.tox.2021.153017

  • Fifteen (79 %) studies found at least one significant association between pesticide exposure and reduced sperm quality. The overall risk of bias across studies was classified as low to moderate. 
  • The strength of the body of evidence overall was rated as having sufficient evidence of toxicity. Regarding specific sperm endpoints, there was sufficient evidence that pesticides are toxic for sperm motility and DNA integrity; limited evidence of toxicity for sperm concentration; and inadequate evidence of toxicity for sperm morphology.

Kogevinas M. Probable carcinogenicity of glyphosate. BMJ. 2019;365:l1613. doi:10.1136/bmj.l1613.

Lesseur C, Pirrotte P, Pathak KV, Manservisi F, et al. . Maternal urinary levels of glyphosate during pregnancy and anogenital distance in newborns in a US multicenter pregnancy cohort. Environ Pollut. 2021 Jul 1;280:117002. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117002. Epub 2021 Mar 22

  • These preliminary findings partially reproduce our previous results in rodents and suggest that glyphosate is a sex-specific endocrine disruptor with androgenic effects in humans. Given the increasing glyphosate exposures in the US population, larger studies should evaluate potential developmental effects on endocrine and reproductive systems.

Li Z, Jennings A. Worldwide regulations of standard values of pesticides for human health risk control: A Review. Interl Journ Environl Res and Pub Heal. 2017;14(7):826.

  • For the top 27 commonly regulated pesticides in soil, there are at least 300 RGVs (8% of the total) that are above all of the computed upper bounds for human health risk uncertainty.
  • For the top 29 most-commonly regulated pesticides in drinking water, at least 172 drinking water MCLs (5% of the total) exceed the computed upper bounds for human health risk uncertainty; while for the 14 most widely used pesticides, there are at least 310 computed implied dose limits (28.0% of the total) that are above the acceptable daily intake values.

Lombardi C, Thompson S, Ritz B, Cockburn M, Heck JE. Residential proximity to pesticide application as a risk factor for childhood central nervous system tumors. Environmental Research. 2021;197:111078.

Malek AM, Barchowsky A, Bowser R, Youk A, Talbott EO. Pesticide exposure as a risk factor for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Environmental Research. 2012;117:112-119.

Malekirad AA, Faghih M, Mirabdollahi M, Kiani M, Fathi A, Abdollahi M. Neurocognitive, mental health, and glucose disorders in farmers exposed to organophosphorus pesticides. Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology. 2013;64(1):1-8.

Malina, D. Manufactured Chemicals and Children’s Health —The Need for New Law. The Consortium for Children’s Environmental Health The New England Journal of Medicine 2025

  • Over the past half-century, rates of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in children have risen sharply. The incidence of childhood cancers has increased by 35%, and the frequency of male reproductive birth defects has doubled. Neurodevelopmental disorders now affect 1 in 6 children, with autism spectrum disorder diagnosed in 1 in 36.
  • Research has revealed significant links between prenatal exposures to certain chemicals and long-term health outcomes. For example, prenatal exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) has been associated with an increased risk of breast cancer in women, while in utero exposure to brominated flame retardants, phthalates, and organophosphates has been linked to lifelong decreases in cognitive function.

Malkan S. Chlorpyrifos: Pesticide tied to brain damage in children. US Right to Know. July 2023.

  • Scientific research shows that chlorpyrifos, a widely used insecticide, is strongly linked to brain damage in children. These and other health concerns led several countries and some U.S. states to ban chlorpyrifos years ago, but the chemical was still allowed for use by farmers in the U.S. after successful lobbying by its manufacturer.

Malkan S. Tracking the pesticide industry propaganda network. US Right to Know. March 5, 2023.

  • Just four multinational corporations control more than half the global supply of seeds and pesticides. Public oversight of their activities is crucial for a safe and healthy food system. Yet these companies – Bayer (owner of Monsanto), Corteva (formerly DowDuPont), Syngenta and BASF – have long histories of manipulating science, hiding harm, and attacking scientists and journalists who raise concerns about their products. Since their records do not inspire trust, these companies rely on third-party allies for their PR and lobbying.
  • This site contains fact sheets on pesticide industry front groups and PR allies

Mansouri EH, Reggabi M. Association between type 2 diabetes and exposure to chlorinated persistent organic pollutants in Algeria: A case-control study. Chemosphere. 2020;264(Pt 2):128596.

Mengozzi A, Carli F, Guiducci L, et al. SGLT2 inhibitors and thiazide enhance excretion of DEHP toxic metabolites in subjects with type 2 diabetes: A randomized clinical trial. Environ Res. 2020;192:110316.

Mesnage R, Ferguson S, Nechalioti PM, et al. Impact of glyphosate and its mixture with 2,4-D and dicamba on gut biochemical function, intestinal barrier integrity and microbiome composition in adult rats with prenatal commencement of exposure.Archives of Toxicology. 2026 ***

  • Among the commonly employed herbicides, glyphosate, the declared “active substance” in commercial formulations such as Roundup®, has received significant attention due to its large-scale global application and potential environmental (Klátyik et al. 2023, 2024, 2025) and health impacts (Myers et al. 2016; Van Bruggen et al. 2028, Peillex and Pelletier 2020) including potential to induce fatty liver disease (Riechelmann-Casarin et al. 2025), neurological defects (Costas-Ferreira et al. 2022) and cancer (Weisenburger 2021; Weisenburger 2026 ; Panzacchi et al. 2025).  
  • Overreliance on glyphosate as a weed control agent in GM and non-GM (e.g. pre-harvest desiccation on cereals) cropping systems has inevitably led to the emergence of glyphosate resistant weeds. A total of 48 weed species have evolved glyphosate resistance worldwide (Baek et al. 2021) with greatest infestation in GM crop fields in the United States (Heap and Duke 2018). As a result, farmers use combinations of herbicides such as glyphosate along with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and dicamba to improve effectiveness of weed control.  
  • One physiological system that can be impacted by herbicides is the gut, which can include effects on biochemical function, intestinal barrier integrity and the microbiome (Tsiaoussis et al. 2019). The gut microbiome plays a fundamental role in numerous physiological processes, including digestion of food, nutrient metabolism, immune regulation, and maintenance of gut intestinal barrier integrity (Camilleri 2019). Disruptions to the gut microbiome have been associated with a range of health disorders, including metabolic syndrome, inflammatory bowel diseases, autoimmunity and neurodevelopmental disorders 

Mohammadi K, Sani MA, Safaei P, Rahmani J, Molaee-Aghaee E, Jafari SM. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the impacts of glyphosate on the reproductive hormones. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2022 Sep;29(41):62030-62041. doi: 10.1007/s11356-021-16145-x. Epub 2021 Aug 27. PMID: 34453247.

  • According to our results, glyphosate intake could have major effects on the health of reproductive system. Consequently, strict monitoring of the residual glyphosate content in the drinking water, agricultural crops, and food products is necessary.

Mostafalou S, Abdollahi M. Pesticides and human chronic diseases: evidences, mechanisms, and perspectives. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2013;268(2):157–77.

Mota ALC, Barbosa IM, Rodrigues AB, Chaves EMC, Almeida PC. Pesticide exposure and risk of Central Nervous System tumors in children: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Exposição a agrotóxicos e o risco de tumores do Sistema Nervoso Central em crianças: revisão sistemática com metanálise. Cien Saude Colet. 2023;28(9):2583-2594. doi:10.1590/1413-81232023289.00262023

  • Studies investigating direct exposure to pesticides (use for home pest control) and indirect exposure (related to parental occupation) conducted in recent years have shown a possible link between exposure and CNS tumors.
  • The National Cancer Institute (INCA) underlines that occupational exposure to pesticides poses a risk not only to workers, but also other individuals, such as family members and residents living close to pesticide use sites. Other forms of exposure can contribute to poisoning among the general population, including eating pesticide residues in food, drinking contaminated water, and using insecticides in the home.
  • The synthesis of the evidence pointed to a relationship between exposure to pesticides and some histological types of CNS tumors in childhood.

Mount Sinai Medical Center. Top Ten toxic chemicals suspected to cause autism and learning disabilities. ScienceDaily. Published April 25, 2012.

Nam DJ, Kim Y, Yang EH, Lee HC, Ryoo J-H. Relationship between urinary phthalate metabolites and diabetes: Korean National Environmental Health Survey (KoNEHS) cycle 3 (2015-2017). Ann Occup Environ Med. 2020;32:e34.

Navarrete-Meneses MDP, Salas-Labadía C, Gómez-Chávez F, Pérez-Vera P. Environmental pollution and risk of childhood cancer: A scoping review of evidence from the last decade. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2024;25(6):3284.

  • Anthropogenic air pollution is one of the biggest health hazards worldwide, accounting for approximately 9 million deaths per year. In addition, air pollution leads to adverse effects on vegetation near factories due to exposure to heavy metals. The long-term effects of environmental pollution have been of concern as several pollutants are carcinogenic, potentially inducing a variety of cancers, including childhood cancers
  • We found a particularly high percentage of positive associations between prenatal and postnatal exposure to indoor (84%) and outdoor (79%) air pollution, as well as to pesticides (82%), and childhood cancer. Positive associations were found between leukemia and pesticides and air pollution (33% and 27%); CNS tumors and neuroblastoma and pesticides (53% and 43%); 
  • This is a layperson version of this information from Beyond Pesticides

Nebeker R. EPA bans chlorpyrifos: What it means for our food and farmworkers. FoodPrint. Published August 23, 2021. (Layperson article)

  • The people most at risk for all pesticide poisonings are farmworkers who apply them and who work in the fields where they’re sprayed. Because chlorpyrifos is commonly used on fruit, vegetable and tree crops like strawberries, broccoli, nuts and citrus — all of which require hands-on labor to grow and harvest — it’s hard for workers to avoid contact with the chemical even when they follow proper protocols for application.
  • Over the long term, health outcomes are worse: chlorpyrifos can cause lasting nerve damage and increase risks of lung cancer. Chlorpyrifos exposures can also come through residues on produce and in drinking water. Because residues degrade over time, the risks are much lower, but they can still be harmful to children, pregnant women and others. In 2016, the EPA found that residues of the insecticide were far higher than what they deemed safe, making the ban even more urgent.
  • But the risks of chlorpyrifos exposure are worst for children, infants and pregnant women: For them, chlorpyrifos is clearly associated with poor brain development, neurological problems and low birth weight. Children who live around farms, especially children of farmworkers, are the most at risk, with concentrations in farmworkers’ homes that are five times higher than normal.

New insights on pesticide exposure and autism (Environmental Factor, September 2018). National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.

Newson JJ, Marinova Z, Thiagarajan TC. Are the growing levels of neurotoxic and neuro-disruptive chemicals in our food and drink contributing to the youth mental health crisis? A narrative review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2025;176:106290.

  • there has been a marked and largely unexplained decline in the mental health and wellbeing of young people worldwide.
  • One such factor, often overlooked, is the increasing exposure of children and adolescents to neurotoxic and neuro-disruptive chemicals in the food and beverages they consume. These include agricultural and industrial chemicals (e.g., pesticide residues, heavy metals), additives in ultra-processed foods, and packaging-derived contaminants such as microplastics and bisphenols.
  • Neurotoxins in food may contribute to the global decline in youth mental health. Pesticides, heavy metals, and plastics in food harm brain development and mental function.Younger generations have growing exposure to various toxins earlier in development
  • While previous studies have discussed the potential role of these chemicals on rising rates of diseases such as obesity and cancer in young people (Phelps et al., 2024, The Consortium for Children’s Environmental Health, 2025, Zhao et al., 2023), their potentially disruptive and degenerative effects in the brain have profound and far-reaching consequences for the mental functioning of society. In addition, although these chemicals may affect outcomes in all age groups, children are fundamentally more vulnerable to toxic and disruptive chemicals due to their immature metabolic pathways, the rapid maturation and plasticity of their developing brain, and their lower body weight
  • In 2022, 3.7 million metric tons of agricultural pesticides were applied to crops worldwide to control pests, weeds, and diseases (FAO, 2024). In turn, these pesticide residues enter the food chain and can be found in bread, fruit, and vegetables, with their concentration varying depending on food type and country (Ahmadi et al., 2024a, Ahmadi et al., 2024b, Claydon, 2017, Environmental Working Group, 2024; Heinrich Böll Foundation et al., 2022; Keklik et al., 2025; Poulsen et al., 2017; Sinha et al., 2012). Over the past few decades, numerous studies and biomonitoring programs have found multiple pesticides (e.g. pyrethroids, organophosphates, neonicotinoids) and/or their metabolites in a range of bodily fluids (e.g., urine, blood/plasma, amniotic fluid, umbilical cord serum, and breast milk) as well as in cerebrospinal fluid and the brain, indicating that they can traverse around the body, and cross both the placenta and blood-brain barrier (see Table 1 for a cross-section of recent literature).
  • studies investigating the impact of pesticides on neurodevelopmental outcomes in children and adolescents have shown associations with cognitive, social, and language deficits (Engel et al., 2016, Furlong et al., 2017, Furlong et al., 2014, He et al., 2022, Ntantu Nkinsa et al., 2023, Qi et al., 2022, Ramos et al., 2023, Sagiv et al., 2023) as well as altered cortical activation, white matter microstructure, and functional connectivity (Binter et al., 2022, Gao et al., 2024, Sagiv et al., 2024; Van den Dries et al., 2020) [see (Andersen et al., 2022, Elser et al., 2022, James and OShaughnessy, 2023, Reed et al., 2023a, Shekhar et al., 2024) for some recent reviews]. At the neurobiological level, pesticides are also known to be endocrine disruptors and disruptors of the gut-brain axis (Gama et al., 2022, Khoo et al., 2024, Mazuryk et al., 2024, Mnif et al., 2011, Rueda-Ruzafa et al., 2019), and to have various modes of neurotoxicity and neuro-disruption that include targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (e.g. neonicotinoids) (Cimino et al., 2017, Costas-Ferreira and Faro, 2021), voltage-gated sodium channels (e.g. pyrethroids) (Field et al., 2017, Tang et al., 2018), and other neurotransmitter pathways (e.g. per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)-containing pesticides) (Brown-Leung and Cannon, 2022, Nannaware et al., 2024). Taken together, these findings highlight the pervasive presence of pesticide residues in the human body and their potential to interfere with neurodevelopmental processes through multiple biological pathways.

Nicolopoulou-Stamati P, Maipas S, Kotampasi C, Stamatis P, Hens L. Chemical Pesticides and human health: The urgent need for a new concept in agriculture. Frontiers in Public Health. 2016;4. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2016.00148.

  • The numerous negative health effects that have been associated with chemical pesticides include, among other effects, dermatological, gastrointestinal, neurological, carcinogenic, respiratory, reproductive, and endocrine effects Furthermore, high occupational, accidental, or intentional exposure to pesticides can result in hospitalization and death
  • In the majority of cases, the concentrations do not exceed the legislatively determined safe levels (36, 39, 41, 42). However, these “safe limits” may underestimate the real health risk as in the case of simultaneous exposure to two or more chemical substances, which occurs in real-life conditions and may have synergistic effects (1, 43). Pesticides residues have also been detected in human breast milk samples, and there are concerns about prenatal exposure and health effects in children

Oulhote Y, Bouchard MF. Urinary metabolites of organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides and behavioral problems in Canadian children. Environmental Health Perspectives. 2013;121(11-12):1378-1384.

Park AS, Ritz B, Yu F, Cockburn M, Heck JE. Prenatal pesticide exposure and childhood leukemia – a California statewide case-control study. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health. 2020;226:113486.

Perkins T. Exposure to combination of pesticides increases childhood cancer risk – study. The Guardian. March 5, 2025.

  • Exposure to multiple pesticides significantly increases the risk of childhood cancers compared with exposures to just one pesticide, first-of-its-kind research finds, raising new fears that children are more at risk to the substances’ harmful effects than previously thought.
  • “As individuals, we aren’t just exposed to one chemical, but a mixture, so if you are just studying one chemical alone, then you are not able to capture the exposures – it gives you limited information”
  • The study investigated cancer data from 2,500 pediatric cases across 22 years in Nebraska, which is in the nation’s agricultural heartland. It holds the US’s second highest childhood cancer rates, in part due to widespread use of multiple pesticides.
  • Of the 32 pesticides researchers examined, the most potent mixes included herbicides such as dicamba, glyphosate and paraquat – controversial products that are each sprayed on tens of millions of acres of cropland nationally.
  • But people are exposed to multiple pesticides in water, produce, meat, fish and processed foods. In agricultural communities, children can be even further exposed to multiple pesticides in water, air and dust, and in the home.

Puigbo et al. Does Glyphosate Affect the Human Microbiota? Life. 2022;12(5):707

  • Our results demonstrate that more than one-half of human microbiome are intrinsically sensitive to glyphosate.

Rahman A. Low-cost approach may lower adolescent pesticide exposure. Environmental Factor. 2020.

Kaur R, Choudhary D, Bali S, Bandral SS, Singh V, Ahmad A, Rani N, Singh TG, Chandrasekaran B. Pesticides: An alarming detrimental to health and environment.Science of the Total Environment. 2024;915:170113. ***

  • The most widely used pesticide among organophosphates, which were touted as an eco-friendly alternative to organochlorines, is glyphosate. Other pesticides that are well-known in this class include dimethoate, parathion, malathion, and others with a history of endocrine disruption. This class of pesticides has been linked to health issues related to endocrine and nervous systems, cellular oxidative stress, effects on the functioning of important enzymes such as cholinesterase, reduced secretion of insulin, dysregulation of cellular metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, and increased genotoxic effects.
  • Pesticide residues can be discovered in a wide range of common foods and drinks, such as prepared fruit juices, wine, water, snacks, poultry food, and other meals. It must be understood that only washing and peeling off do not eliminate the pesticide residues. Human breast milk tests have also shown pesticide residues, raising worries about fetal exposure and the health impacts on offspring 

Rana et al. Mapping the key characteristics of carcinogens for glyphosate and its formulations: A systematic review. Chemosphere. 2023;339:139572

  • Our analysis… indicated that glyphosate’s ability to modulate hormone levels and estrogen receptor activity is sensitive to both exposure concentration and formulation. The modulations observed provide clear evidence that glyphosate interacts with receptors, alters receptor activation, and modulates the levels and effects of endogenous ligands (including hormones).
  • “Our findings strengthen the mechanistic evidence that glyphosate is a probable human carcinogen and provide biological plausibility for previously reported cancer associations in humans, such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma. We identified potential molecular interactions and subsequent key events that were used to generate a probable pathway to lymphomagenesis.”

Rauh VA, Perera FP, Horton MK, et al. Brain anomalies in children exposed prenatally to a common organophosphate pesticide. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2012;109(20):7871-7876.

Reynier E & Rubin E. Glyphosate exposure and GM seed rollout unequally reduced perinatal health.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A.122 (3) e2413013121

  •  Our results suggest the introduction of GM seeds and glyphosate significantly reduced average birthweight and gestational length. While we find effects throughout the birthweight distribution, low expected-weight births experienced the largest reductions: Glyphosate’s birthweight effect for births in the lowest decile is 12 times larger than that in the highest decile. Together, these estimates suggest that glyphosate exposure caused previously undocumented and unequal health costs for rural US communities over the last 20 years.
  • Layperson article on this: https://usrtk.org/healthwire/glyphosate-harms-infants-health-in-rural-areas/
    • Spurred by the introduction of genetically modified seeds by Monsanto in 1996, the use of glyphosate nationwide has increased by more than 750%. In that time, researchers from the University of Oregon estimate that maternal exposure to the pesticide reduced the average birth weight of babies and duration of pregnancy (gestational length) in rural areas, where it is most prevalent.

Rueda-Ruzafa L, Cruz F, Roman P, Cardona D.Gut microbiota and neurological effects of glyphosate. Neurotoxicology. 2019;75:1-8.

  • Researchers have suggested that Gly can cause dysbiosis, a phenomenon which is characterised by an imbalance between beneficial and pathogenic microorganisms. The overgrowth of bacteria such as clostridia generates high levels of noxious metabolites in the brain, which can contribute to the development of neurological deviations.

Schinasi L, Leon M. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma and occupational exposure to agricultural pesticide chemical groups and active ingredients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2014;11(4):4449-4527.

Schütte, G., Eckerstorfer, M., Rastelli, V. et al. Herbicide resistance and biodiversity: agronomic and environmental aspects of genetically modified herbicide-resistant plants. Environmental Sciences Europe. 2017;29(5).

Shekhar, C et al. A systematic review of pesticide exposure, associated risks, and long-term human health impacts.Toxicology Reports Volume 13, December 2024, 101840 ***

  • Pesticide exposure raises health risks, including cancer and neurological issues
  • Occupational exposure raises health risks due to prolonged pesticide contact
  • Long-term pesticide effects from low-dose exposure through inhalation and ingestion.
  • Regulations and safety protocols are key to reducing health risks from pesticides.

Shin, D et al. Effects of dietary combination of n-3 and n-9 fatty acids on the deposition of linoleic and arachidonic acid in broiler chicken meats. Poultry Science Volume 91, Issue 4, 1 April 2012, Pages 1009-1017

Sinaiexposomics. Food and Chemical Exposure – Institute for Exposomic Research. Institute for Exposomic Research. Published February 20, 2025.

Soares D, Silva L, Duarte S, Pena A, Pereira A. Glyphosate Use, Toxicity and Occurrence in Food. Foods. 2021; 10(11):2785.***

  • Since glyphosate is mainly applied in fields and can persist several months in the soil, concerns have been raised about the impact that its presence in food can cause in humans.The incidence of glyphosate at levels above those legally allowed and the suspected toxic effects of this compound raise awareness regarding public health.
  • Glyphosate acts by inhibiting the shikimate pathway—more specifically, by inhibiting the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS). With the EPSPS inhibition, the synthesis of tyrosine, tryptophan and phenylalanine, essential amino acids for plant growth, is blocked . Glyphosate, the only herbicide that inhibits EPSPS, also compromises the production of secondary metabolites, such as lignin

Saffron J.The environment influences brain development, experts say. Environmental Factor. 2020.

Sagiv SK, Harris MH, Gunier RB, Kogut KR, Harley KG, Deardorff J, Bradman A, Holland N, Eskenazi B. Prenatal Organophosphate Pesticide Exposure and Traits Related to Autism Spectrum Disorders in a Population Living in Proximity to Agriculture. Environ Health Perspect. 2018 Apr 25;126(4):047012.

  • Prenatal exposure to organophosphate (OP) pesticides has been linked with poorer neurodevelopment and behaviors related to autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in previous studies,
  • There is increasing recognition that modifiable environmental factors play an important role in the etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD)

Sidthilaw, S., Sapbamrer, R., Pothirat, C. et al. Effects of exposure to glyphosate on oxidative stress, inflammation, and lung function in maize farmers, Northern Thailand. BMC Public Health. 2022;22:1343

Toxic Substances Portal:Glyphosate -Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry

Taiba, J, et al.  2025. Exploring the Joint Association Between Agrichemical Mixtures and Pediatric Cancer. Advancing Earth and space Sicence. GeoHealth. 12 February 2025

  • We observed a statistically significant positive association between the 32 agrichemicals and overall pediatric cancer and subtypes. The strength of associations was slightly stronger among brain and CNS cancers and leukemia.
  • Dicamba, glyphosate, paraquat, quizalofop, triasulfuron, and tefluthrin largely contributed to the joint association. These findings may explain the joint associations of the agrichemical mixture on childhood cancer.
  • Among the pesticides considered in the mixture, herbicides contributed the most toward these joint associations

Tudi, M., Daniel Ruan, H., Wang, L., Lyu, J., Sadler, R., Connell, D., Chu, C., & Phung, D. T. (2021). Agriculture Development, Pesticide Application and Its Impact on the Environment. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(3), 1112.

  • About one-third of agricultural products are produced depending on the application of pesticides. Without the use of pesticides, there would be a 78% loss of fruit production, a 54% loss of vegetable production, and a 32% loss of cereal production. Therefore, pesticides play a critical role in reducing diseases and increasing crop yields worldwide. 
  •  They can also be toxic to other organisms, including birds, fish, beneficial insects, and non-target plants, as well as air, water, soil, and crops. Moreover, pesticide contamination moves away from the target plants, resulting in environmental pollution. Such chemical residues impact human health through environmental and food contamination.

Vandenberg LN, Pierce EJ, Arsenault RM. Pesticides, an urgent challenge to global environmental health and planetary boundaries. Front Toxicol. 2025 Oct 3;7:1656297. doi: 10.3389/ftox.2025.1656297. PMID: 41114400; PMCID: PMC12531173. ***

  • (1) The global production and use of pesticides is high, leading to increasing rates of release into the environment; (2) exposures to non-target species (including humans) are well documented, and pesticides often have adverse effects on these species; (3) pesticides, and especially those that are persistent organic pollutants, do not stay where they are used, contributing to ecosystem pollution far from their intended areas of application; (4) climate change can exacerbate the use of pesticides; and (5) social determinants of health (race/ethnicity, sex, and occupation) influence pesticide exposures and the adverse effects associated with these exposures. 
  • When considering the global impact of pesticides, these products can disrupt several planetary boundaries including biogeochemical cycles, biosphere integrity (e.g., measures of biodiversity), and the availability of clean freshwater, but the greatest challenge posed by pesticides is the “novel entities” boundary (i.e., the introduction of synthetic chemicals and materials into the environment). The planetary boundaries framework makes clear that failure to act against the most concerning chemicals, including pesticides, ultimately puts the survival of human populations at risk.

Van der Meer TP, Thio CHL, van Faassen M, et al. Endocrine disrupting chemicals during diet-induced weight loss – a post-hoc analysis of the LOWER study. Environmental Research. 2020:110262.

VanDeSteeg GN, Russum AR, Sandbulte MR, Rogan EG, Rhoades MG. Environmental Pesticide Exposure in the Etiology of Pediatric Brain Tumors and Leukemia: A Scoping Review of Epidemiological Studies. International Journal of Cancer. 2026 ***

  • The etiologies of pediatric cancer are largely unknown, but environmental pesticide exposures are likely to contribute. Chronic low-dose exposure to pesticide mixtures through drinking water is a growing concern in agricultural communities. This review examines epidemiological studies published between January 1980 and September 2022 that have evaluated the relationship between pesticide exposure and the risk of childhood brain tumors and leukemia 
  • Findings have shown increased risks for childhood cancers in areas of high agricultural crop density, which may imply a link to increased pesticide applications and pesticide drift from neighboring farm fields.  
  • The review underscores growing evidence linking childhood cancers to environmental pollution. It also comes amid legal and regulatory scrutiny of pesticide health risks, including litigation involving major manufacturers such as Bayer (and its subsidiary Monsanto) and Syngenta.
  • “It adds to an abundance of literature identifying pesticides exposures during pregnancy and childhood as a risk factor for childhood cancers,” said Dr. Mark Miller, an associate professor at UCSF who directs the Childhood Cancer and the Environment Program

Vidart d’Egurbide Bagazgoïtia N, Bailey HD, Orsi L, et al. Maternal residential pesticide use during pregnancy and risk of malignant childhood brain tumors: A pooled analysis of the escale and Estelle Studies (SFCE). International Journal of Cancer. 2017;142(3):489-497.

Wahab S, Muzammil K, Nasir N, Khan MS, Ahmad MF, Khalid M, Ahmad W, Dawria A, Reddy LKV, Busayli AM. Advancement and new trends in analysis of pesticide residues in food: A comprehensive review. Plants (Basel). 2022;11(9):1106.

  • Pesticide residues found in high concentrations in fresh agriculture pose a significant threat to food safety.
  •  A combination of factors, including bioaccumulation, widespread usage, selective toxicity, and stability, make pesticides among the most toxic compounds polluting the environment.
  •  They are especially harmful in vegetables and fruits because people are exposed to them.

Yao J, Pan Y, Sheng N, et al. Novel perfluoroalkyl ether carboxylic acids (PFECAs) and sulfonic acids (PFESAs): occurrence and association with serum Bbochemical parameters in residents living near a fuorochemical plant in China. Environmental Sciences Technology. 2020.

Yuan X, Pan Z, Jin C, Ni Y, Fu Z, Jin Y. Gut microbiota: An underestimated and unintended recipient for pesticide-induced toxicity. Chemosphere. 2019;227:425-434

Zhang et al. Exposure to glyphosate-based herbicides and risk for non-Hodgkin lymphoma: A meta-analysis and supporting evidence. Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research. 2019;781:186-206

  • Our current meta-analysis of human epidemiological studies suggests a compelling link between exposures to GBHs and increased risk for NHL.
  • Overall, in accordance with findings from experimental animal and mechanistic studies, our current meta-analysis of human epidemiological studies suggests a compelling link between exposures to glyphosate based herbicides and increased risk for Non Hodgkins Lymphoma.

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Bouchard MF, Bellinger DC, Wright RO, Weisskopf MG. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and urinary metabolites of organophosphate pesticides. Pediatrics. 2010;125(6).

Winchester PD, Huskins J, Ying J. Agrichemicals in surface water and birth defects in the United States. Acta Paediatr. 2009;98(4):664-669.

Children’s health and the environment. Children’s Health and the Environment: WHO Training Package for the Health Sector World Health Organization. Published July 2008.

Schreinemachers DM. Birth malformations and other adverse perinatal outcomes in four U.S. Wheat-producing states. Environ Health Perspect. 2003;111(9):1259-1264.

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